ABSTRACT Elizabeth Pendleton Pierce, BUILDING CONFIDENCE AND COMPETENCE: EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF PEER TUTORING ON HIGH SCHOOL MATH PERFORMANCE AND SELF-EFFICACY (Under the direction of Dr. Travis Lewis). Department of Educational Leadership, May 2025. Multiple factors contribute to schools nationwide having an increasing number of teacher vacancies upon the start of each school year. Pay dissatisfaction, high workload, increased expectations with paperwork, and concerns with educational policy are among the reasons that teachers indicate regarding why they leave the profession. With high levels of teacher departures and a diminished pipeline of incoming teachers to fill vacancies, school administrators must explore other strategies to maintain quality instruction. Peer tutoring is one such strategy and involves high-performing students assisting their peers to provide academic support. Often, there can be social-emotional benefits from peer tutoring as well. At Traditional High School, following the COVID-19 pandemic, math scores were trailing behind the state average. A peer tutoring program was identified as a viable strategy to improve math scores, address the math achievement gap at the school, and place another person in the classroom to help remediate struggling students. This inquiry aimed to examine the effects of this peer tutoring program framework on student attitudes, math achievement, and self- confidence. Using a mixed-methods approach, data from state testing, student surveys, and teacher and peer tutor interviews were collected and analyzed to evaluate how peer tutoring impacted growth and academic success. Findings indicate that peer tutoring increases student attitudes toward math, student self-efficacy, and student achievement in mathematics. The framework implemented for peer tutoring may be replicable in other content areas and similar instructional setting. The findings also offer important insights for improving math performance outcomes and easing the strain caused by teacher shortages in similar schools. BUILDING CONFIDENCE AND COMPETENCE: EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF PEER TUTORING ON HIGH SCHOOL MATH PERFORMANCE AND SELF-EFFICACY A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership By Elizabeth Pendleton Pierce May, 2025 Director of Dissertation: Travis Lewis, EdD Dissertation Committee Members: Matthew Cheeseman, EdD Heidi Puckett, EdD Kathy Spencer, EdD ©Copyright 2025 Elizabeth Pendleton Pierce DEDICATION To mama who taught me to be fiercely independent and confident in the ability to always take care of myself and work hard, I carry you always in my heart. You still give me the ambition to do challenging things. To my daddy who never excepts an excuse, always listens and makes me laugh, and believes in me completely, I am forever grateful to you and so thankful that you are my daddy. I love you and thank you for always being the best. To my husband, Mike, I can never express how much I love you and appreciate you for your patience and love during this process. It has been consuming and left little time for our date nights and weekends away, but you have remained my constant source of support and laughter. I do not know what I would have ever done without you, and I am so very blessed to have you. Thank you for always being my person. To my children, Zachary, Candace, Jackson, and Garrett, you are all the reason I do all that I do. I hope that this is just one stop along my journey that shows you how capable you are of anything, no matter how difficult it may seem. You are each my heartbeat and make me so proud. No matter what I may achieve, you will certainly be my greatest accomplishment and greatest joy. I love you so very much. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my superintendent and leader, Mr. Brent Williams, you have a vision and the ability to lead others that I strive to one day possess. Your leadership and mentorship through this process and each day is something that I am overwhelmingly grateful to have. Thank you for your encouragement and belief in me and all those that you lead. To my chair, Dr. Travis Lewis, there is no way I would have gotten through this process without your patience, understanding, and humor. You are truly outstanding, and I am forever grateful to have had your guidance throughout this journey. Thank you. To my school and work family, thank you. You are simply the best and I am fortunate to work alongside the most amazing educators. You teach me each day what it means to be an advocate for education and for students. Thank you for allowing me to be a part of this work. To all educators that have put me on my path, mentored me, taught me, and led me this far, I am without the words to properly thank you. Steve Saint-Amand and Daphne Pollock, it all began with you, and I am forever indebted to you for your lifelong friendship and mentorship. There is not and will not be a day that I am not grateful for you and everyone else that has had a lasting impact on so many in education. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE………………………………………………………………………………… i COPYRIGHT………………………………………………………………………… ii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………… xi LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….. xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………. 1 Background of the Problem of Practice………………………………………... 3 Context of Inquiry……………………………………………………………... 7 Focus of the Problem of Practice……………………………………………… 8 Inquiry Guiding Questions…………………………………………………….. 10 Overview of Inquiry………………………………………………………….... 11 Inquiry Partners………………………………………………………………... 12 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………………… 12 The Youth Mentoring Model……………………………………………. 12 Student Peer Assisted Mentoring………………………………………... 12 Definition of Key Terms……………………………………………………….. 13 Assumptions………………………………………………………………….... 14 Scope and Delimitations……………………………………………………….. 15 Limitations……………………………………………………………………... 15 Significance of Inquiry……………………………………………………….... 16 Advancing Equity and Social Justice…………………………………… 16 Advances in Practice…………………………………………………..... 17 Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 17 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE…………………………………………. 19 Conceptual Framework………………………………………………................ 19 Student Peer Assisted Mentoring………………………..…………………….. 20 The Youth Mentoring Model….……………………………………………….. 21 Understanding the Math Achievement Crisis…………………...……………... 21 The Impact of Curriculum and Pedagogy……………………………….. 24 Teacher Pipeline………………………………………………………… 25 Mindset…………………..……………………………………………… 26 Environmental Factors Impacting Achievement…………..…………………... 27 COVID-19………………………………………………………………. 28 Non-Health Factors……………………………………………………… 28 Self-Efficacy…………………………………………………………………… 30 High School Student Self-Efficacy……………………………………… 32 Self-Efficacy and Math Performance…………………………………… 33 Peer Tutoring…………………………………………………………………... Peer Tutoring in High School…………………………………………… Peer Tutoring in Mathematics…………………………………………… 35 37 38 Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 39 CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF INQUIRY……………………………………………. 40 Inquiry Guiding Questions…………………………………………………….. 40 Context of the Inquiry ……………………………………...………………….. 40 Inquiry Design and Rationale ………...……………………………………….. 45 Collaborative Inquiry Partners……………………………………………….... 47 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………. 47 Inquiry Procedures…………………………………………………….……….. 49 Phase I…………………………………………………………………… 50 Plan……………………………………………….………………. 50 Do………………………………………………………………… 50 Instrumentation………...…………………………………... 50 Pilot Study ………………………………………………… 51 Study……………………………………………………………… 52 Act………………………………………………………………... 52 Phase II………………………………………………………………….. 53 Plan………………..……………………………………………. 53 Do……………….………………………………………………. 53 Study …………….………………………………………………. 53 Act………………………………………………………………... 55 Phase III…………………………………………………………………. 55 Plan……………………………………………………………….. 55 Do………………………………………………………………… 55 Study……………………………………………………………… 56 Act………………………………………………………………... 56 Inquiry Design Rigor…………………………………………………………... 56 Delimitations, Limitations, and Assumptions…………………………………. 57 Role of the Scholarly Practitioner……………………………………………... 58 Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 58 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS……………………………………………………………. 60 Pilot Study……………………………………………………………………... 61 Data Collection………………………………………………………………… 62 Student Surveys………..………………………………………………... 62 Student Tutee Focus Groups…………..……………………………….. 62 Teacher Interviews……………………………………………………… 63 Student Tutor Interviews…………………………………………........... 64 North Carolina End of Course Test Data………………………………... 64 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………... 65 Student Surveys…………………………………………………………. 65 Student Tutee Focus Groups……………………………………………. 65 Teacher and Peer Tutor Interviews………………………………........... 65 North Carolina End of Course Test Data………………………………... 66 Demographics………………………………………………………………….. 66 Results…………………………………………………………………………. 69 Peer Tutee Surveys……………………………………………………… 69 Focus Groups…………………………………………………………… 76 Effective learning and instruction promote cognitive development……………………………………………………… 80 Motivation and engagement can be influenced by both positive and negative social-emotional factors............................................. 80 Growth and development in learning are significantly influenced by the mentoring relationship……………………………………. 82 Peer Tutor Interviews……………………………………………………. 83 Student motivation to learn tends to increase in small group learning settings…………………………………………………. 83 A positive and supportive tutor boosts students’ willingness to engage with content…………………………………………... 87 Students often fear large environments for learning...................... 87 Both tutors and tutees could benefit from additional one-on-one time…………………………………………………. 88 Teacher Interviews……….……………………………………………… 88 Increased openness and interaction from students with peer tutors…………………………………………………………….. 92 Tutors were active and proactive in the classroom……………… 92 Strong peer relationships are facilitated by peer tutors…………. 93 North Carolina End Of Course Assessment……..……………………………. 96 Summary………………………………………………………………………. 96 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS……. 102 Summary of the Findings……………………………………………………… 102 What effect does a peer tutoring program have on the improvement of students’ attitudes and mindset toward math?............... 102 How will the implementation of a peer tutoring program in Math 1 and Math 3 classrooms affect student growth toward math proficiency performance?............................................................... 104 What effect does participation in a peer tutoring program have on the math self-efficacy of tutored students?......................................... 107 Interpretation of the Findings…………………………………………………. 109 Limitations of the Inquiry……………………………………………………... 111 Implications of the Findings for Practice……………………………………... 111 Recommendations for Practice………………………………………………... 113 Recommendations for Future Study…………………………………………... 114 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 115 Scholarly Practitioner Reflections on Leadership…………………………...... 115 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….. 117 APPENDIX A: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL………………. 128 APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT FORM (ENGLISH)……………………… 129 APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT FORM (SPANISH)……………………… 132 APPENDIX D: INFORMED ASSENT FORM (ENGLISH)………………………... 135 APPENDIX E: INFORMED ASSENT FORM (SPANISH)………………………… 138 APPENDIX F: THS STUDENT SURVEY …………………………………………. 141 APPENDIX G: PEER TUTEE FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOL …………………….. 142 APPENDIX H: PEER TUTOR INTERVIEW PROTOCOL ………………………... 143 APPENDIX I: TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL……………………………... 144 APPENDIX J: CARECORPS TUTOR TRAINING…..……………………………... 145 LIST OF TABLES 1. THS Math 1 and Math 3 Proficiency Rates by Year……………………………..... 41 2. Collaborative Inquiry Partners………………………………………………...…… 48 3. Matrix of Inquiry Guiding Questions, Data Collection, Phase of Inquiry, & Time.. 54 4. Focus Group Student Demographics………………………………………………. 70 5. Peer Tutor Demographics………………………………………………………….. 71 6. Frequency Word List from Peer Tutee Focus Groups……………………………... 85 7. Frequency Word List from Peer Tutor Interviews…………………………………. 90 8. Frequency Word List from Math 1 and Math 3 Teacher Interviews………………. 95 9. Growth Projections to EOC Scores for Teacher 1 Math 1 2023-2024…………….. 98 10. Growth Projections to EOC Scores for Teacher 2 Math 1 2023-2024…………… 99 11. Growth Projections to EOC Scores for Teacher 3 Math 3 2023-2024…………… 100 12. Growth Projections to EOC Scores for Teacher 4 Math 3 2023-2024…………… 101 LIST OF FIGURES 1. THS student race and ethnicity enrollment by percentage for 2023-2024………….. 9 2. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development ……………….……………………….. 22 3. The Youth Mentoring Model Framework ………………………………………....... 23 4. Self-Efficacy in education……………………………………………….………....... 31 5. THS schoolwide academic growth by year………………………………………….. 42 6. THS schoolwide performance grade score by year……………………………......... 43 7. Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle…………………………………………………………….. 46 8. Race of student participants………………………………………………………….. 67 9. Teacher accountability by percentage of student participants……………………….. 68 10. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #1: Math is an important subject to me…………………………………………………………………………………….. 72 11. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #2: I best learn math by using manipulatives, gaming, etc. …………………………………………………………. 73 12. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #3: I enjoy it when other students help me learn math………………………………………………………………………… 74 13: Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #4: I have friends at school………….. 75 14. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #5: It is easy for me to ask a peer questions in class when I do not understand something……………………………... 77 15. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #6: I will use Math1/Math 3 content in my post-graduation plans…………………………………………………………….. 78 16. Peer tutee responses to Likert-type statement #7: I am satisfied with my grades in math………………………………………………………………………………….. 79 17. Codes, categories, and themes derived from peer tutee focus group transcripts..…… 81 18. Word frequency cloud of peer tutee focus group transcripts. ……………………….. 84 19. Codes, categories, and themes derived from peer tutor interview transcripts..……… 86 20. Word frequency cloud of peer tutor interview transcripts…………………………… 89 21. Codes, categories, and themes derived from Math 1 and Math 3 teacher interview transcripts. …………………………………………………………………………… 91 22. Word frequency cloud from teacher interview transcripts…………………………... 94 23. Math 1 and Math 3 End of Course test proficiency for 2022-2023 and 2023-2024…. 97 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Teachers are perhaps the most vital component of a school for student learning and growth. While research shows there is no national teacher shortage, the data also shows 45% of public schools with at least one vacancy (Wong, 2022). Moreover, the number of vacancies in higher poverty areas and special education positions is alarmingly higher than in others. The places that need highly qualified, dedicated teachers do not have that access. While poor compensation is a factor in attracting teachers to these schools, it is not the biggest issue with the teacher shortage from state to state (Tye & O’Brien, 2002). Increases in accountability, paperwork, the competition created for public education, high stakes evaluations, politics, flawed policies, and constant changes in expectations from states and administration are what those leaving or never entering the profession indicate to be the leading causes contributing to the teacher shortage. There is a growing exodus of qualified teachers leaving the profession to pursue other employment, and recruitment efforts are not addressing the underlying causes of the weak teacher pipeline (Strauss, 2017). Teacher shortages are not a new issue (Ingersoll, 2001). Only a few decades ago, North Carolina was innovative in teacher recruitment strategies with the development of the North Carolina Teaching Fellows scholarship program, a four-year award that requires recipients to teach in a North Carolina (NC) public school for at least four years to repay the award (Schlemmer, 2022); pay incentive for teachers who hold or obtain master’s degrees; and pay incentive for teachers who hold National Board Certification. For young men and women entering the teaching profession, obtaining National Board Certification offered a 12% increase in pay, while a master’s degree offered a 10% pay increase. Toward the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, these incentives and furthering a professional learning for educators was no longer 2 the primary focus for legislators (Berry & Shields, 2017). After the recession in 2009, programs like the NC Teaching Fellows were cut by the NC legislature, only to return in 2013 on a much smaller scale. Only select universities kept the program at all, and others only admitted a fraction of the students traditionally enrolled. Additionally, teachers no longer received incentives to further their education with a graduate degree. Health insurance was no longer free to educators, their retirement packages were not as lavish, and when new educators retire, they would not receive benefits at all. These factors contributed to the growing NC teaching shortage (Schlemmer, 2022). Furthermore, individuals who entered the profession could not have anticipated the emerging need for active shooter drills as a pressing reality, nor the exposure to students experiencing severe poverty, the financial losses incurred over time, the erosion of autonomy within their classrooms, the diminishing resources amid policies that may negatively impact students, and the growing competition for public education created by the North Carolina Department of Education (Strauss, 2017). Such challenges discourage teachers from remaining in the classroom. K-12 students are emotionally, socially, and academically behind, and there are not enough people entering the field of education to meet the needs required of our schools (Capp et al., 2018). As enrollment in teacher preparation programs steadily decreases at an alarming 35% in only five short years, teachers are rapidly leaving the profession to seek out various options in employment, retire, or disregard the profession altogether (Berry & Shields, 2017). With climbing student enrollment in schools and declining highly qualified teachers available due to the stress and changes seen in the profession, achievement gaps are increasing in Math at the school level without the main source of low teacher numbers being addressed by recruitment efforts (Ingersoll, 2001). When combined with stagnant and decreasing academic performance, 3 many schools are mired in a devastated place of low achievement and ineffectiveness. Research shows that success in goal achievement is directly related to math achievement, yet only 12% of high school seniors are proficient when they graduate (Dobbins et al., 2014). Math and science achievement is a predictor of how students will do in next steps of their education, as those who perform well possess more organizational skills and a motivation to succeed. Administrators are having to find creative solutions with staffing and scheduling, while still ensuring students receive the quality of instruction necessary to become positive, contributing members to our society and economy. One such solution is the implementation of a peer tutoring structure. Peer tutoring involves successful students providing academic support to one another and assisting teachers daily in their classrooms (Johnson, 2017). In this structure, both the peer tutor and tutee gain knowledge about the skill in practice, and deficits in learning can possibly be addressed at a more saturated rate than with a teacher alone. Utilization of peer tutoring could prove quite beneficial when there is a teacher shortage in a content area or a need for a substitute teacher. Most importantly, learning from peers in smaller settings can help close achievement gaps and mitigate learning loss at a more rapid rate (Tang et al., 2021). Background of the Problem of Practice The site of this inquiry, a high school in eastern North Carolina which we will call Traditional High School (THS), a pseudonym, is no exception to the challenges of teacher shortages and low student performance facing U.S. public schools. A decline in math test scores is telling of this breakdown for the students at THS. On North Carolina’s End of Course (EOC) exams, THS students are underperforming in Math 1 and Math 3 when compared to their peers across the state. It is important for all stakeholders to grasp where the students are starting and each goal that they need to reach to show growth toward proficiency. When assessments are 4 administered, student Growth is measured through a statewide tool, Education Value-Added Assessment System (EVAAS). For THS, EOC assessments are given to students for select courses at the end of each semester. EVAAS offers a projection number for each student, which serves as a goal for students to meet. After the assessment, EVAAS collects the data of these assessments, and growth is determined based on the students meeting the projection point. Proficiency is determined based on the number of students meeting the score considered to be on grade level. A typical high school student will take one math a year beginning with Math 1 and ending with Math 4. Every student is responsible for receiving four math credits before graduation. However, some students are eligible to take Math 1 in middle school, allowing them to begin with Math 2 in high school. If a student takes two courses in math per academic year, they can have their math credits completed by their sophomore year. Math 1 is a standard Algebra class and Math 2 focuses heavily on Geometry standards. Math 3 is a continuation of both Algebra and Geometry. Math 4 is a combination of Math 1-3 but with more of a focus on functions and statistics. A student on track to receive their high school diploma and associate degree will enroll in Precalculus instead of Math 4. Math 1 and Math 3 are both state-tested in high school, with only one being a student’s marker score. Those who enter high school taking Math 1 will use that course as their marker, while those who enter taking Math 2 will use Math 3 as their marker score. Although there have been higher points in the achievement data over the years, scores at THS have plummeted from 44.7% to 21.6% in Math 1 from 2013 to 2022. To receive a proficient score, a student must receive a scale score of 548, a 63rd percentile, and 43% correct. 5 Math 3 is a continuation of Algebra and Geometry standards. THS resides at 34.9 proficient in Math 3 with the state designating proficiency at a scale score of 550, or 57th percentile, and a 57% correct (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction [NCDPI], n.d.). While efforts have been made to lessen class size, hire highly qualified and effective math teachers for the classrooms, and provide teachers with the resources needed for effective instruction, adequate growth and proficiency outcomes have not been realized. Between 2016 and 2022, the school district in which THS resides, which we will call Traditional School District, or TSD, also a pseudonym, did not have one full year of instruction due to unforeseen inclement weather disasters and the COVID-19 pandemic response. This only deepened the academic issues, such as alignment and student engagement, that already existed. In 2020 when the response to the COVID-19 pandemic led to school closures, any progress in student performance that had been achieved was severed, leading to a “survival mode” for instruction. TSD leadership knew something had to be done. All district and school leaders began an urgent feat for higher academic attainment. Beginning the school year with firm, yet simple non- negotiables, the plan of action proved successful. This time of accomplishment would also mark the time of the yearly environmental challenges. Each year, our district was forced out of the building for days or weeks at a time due to flooding from severe storms, hurricanes, or other inclement weather. Research indicates students who miss 10% of a school year will show less academic gains than peers of the same ability (Pyne et al., 2021). With each weather-related crisis, school leaders and district leaders of TSD met regarding how to help our students catch up on their missed learning and instructional time. Our school system met each adversity ready to overcome. School accountability data was at an all-time high for both growth and proficiency. Our graduation rate was at a record high. Dropout rates were at a record low. Nearly every 6 school was out of low-performing status. Our district was asked to attend and speak at multiple conferences regarding our incredible journey of high achievement. The district seemed to be at the highest of achievement points and still climbing when March 2020 arrived. COVID-19 affected the world and took us out of our buildings. There were detrimental effects on students’ learning, although more severe in the lower grades where students are learning math and reading at a faster rate (Wyse et al., 2020). Research suggests student absenteeism, even during inclement weather, is connected to students not completing high school in their cohort. Student absenteeism during the pandemic shows that the top affected curriculum showing learning deficits in all grade levels was math, followed closely by science (Bennett, 2022). Teachers worked hard to keep students engaged in learning online, however, chronic absenteeism was at an all-time high during the COVID-19 pandemic response and throughout the transition back to in-person instruction in schools. TSD uses a Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS) to provide students with strategies to overcome achievement gaps and social-emotional needs. More specifically, MTSS is a three- tiered framework that assists educators in supporting students through core instruction, targeted intervention, and intensive intervention depending on the needs of each student (Wyse et al., 2020). Each tier provides students with appropriate intervention that is specific to their area of need. Interventions at the core level provide instruction that everyone gets, tier 2 focuses on a targeted group of students that is approximately 12% or less of the whole group, and finally, the intensive tier provides a small portion of students with intense support. MTSS supports can include, reteaching, pre-teaching, small group instruction, peer tutoring, etc. When considering peer tutoring as a means of intervention for this inquiry, it is considered as both tier 2 and 3 strategies. Peer tutoring is one intervention of MTSS that can assist students in learning. Students 7 often feel more comfortable and confident in their abilities, knowledge, and academic struggles with a peer versus an adult (Ketterlin-Geller et al., 2019). Context of Inquiry THS is in a rural town in eastern North Carolina. While lacking in diversity for much of the school’s history, it has recently seen a shift in demographics and is much more racially diverse. During the 2022-2023 school year, enrollment statistics indicated that approximately 45% of the student body identified as White, 27% Black, 14% Hispanic, 11% two or more races, and 3% Native American (see Figure 1). The average daily membership (ADM) indicates the total number of students that are enrolled in a school during a specific amount of time as set by the state of North Carolina (NCDPI, n.d.). In 2023-2024, our ADM is 766, with enrollment increasing over the previous three years from approximately 688 and 761. THS has been in existence for almost 100 years, having been built in 1926 and first opening as a 1-12 grade community school (Hill, 2010). The community consistently verbalizes pride in the school and most families have multiple generations of graduates. It is common to hear from a grandparent picking up a child that they graduated from the school themselves. Approximately 30 students from within the district, as well as surrounding areas, submit transfer requests yearly with the intention of attending the school, which has contributed to increases in enrollment in recent years. The school, as with all schools in the district, is considered a Title 1 school. Title 1 designation indicates that due to a high rate of students being classified as economically disadvantaged at the school, additional federal funds are provided to help the school acquire similar supports and resources that are often available to more affluent schools and families (Pangle, 2022). 8 While lacking diversity for much of the school’s history, THS has recently seen a shift in demographics, as the school is now more diverse, showing more equitable percentages for all subgroups. Math proficiency has been an ongoing challenge for THS. From 2013-2022, math proficiency has been well within or below the state average. With each passing year, efforts were made to increase proficiency and increase growth toward proficiency. Some years proved better than others, however, lacked any consistency. Focus of the Problem of Practice The focus of this inquiry is on the utilization of peer tutoring as a strategy to increase the math performance of high school students. Deficits in math achievement persist as does the demand for highly qualified teachers in the classroom. Instructional supports need to be explored to provide students with successful strategies to improve outcomes in math achievement. Peer tutoring is one potential approach to help begin to balance this unequal and unstable issue educators face (Falchikov, 2001). Other factors such as school closures and online instruction as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic only heightened issues for educators. Gregg and Shin (2021) examined the performance of students receiving face-to-face tutoring pre-COVID-19 versus online tutoring during the pandemic response. Their findings indicated improved performance for both groups. While tutoring overall has demonstrated positive outcomes, additional research shows that lower-achieving students in high-poverty areas have higher success rates in math when paired with tutors, regardless of the tutors’ ability in mathematics (Karsenty, 2010). This is possibly due to the increase in the tutee's confidence and acclimation with school, which further supports the notion that placing peer tutors in the classrooms can be extremely effective. 9 Figure 1. THS student race and ethnicity enrollment by percentage for 2023-2024. 45% 27% 14% 11% 3% White Black Hispanic Two or More Native American 10 This inquiry has the potential to impact every single student on the campus of THS. Each of our students takes math courses as part of North Carolina’s Standard Course of Study and as a required course for graduation. Often, students come into high school unprepared and overwhelmed, including not possessing a basic understanding of math concepts and suffering from other deficits in their learning. For students wishing to attend a postsecondary institution, a lack of math knowledge and proficiency may exacerbate the difficulties many students already face when transitioning to institutions of higher education. Whether this is poor time management, a lack of organization, or an academic skills deficit, research shows a direct link between a lack of college preparedness and students’ math ability (Thiry, 2019). When combined with classrooms that have vacancies or a teacher that is entering the profession uncertified, the utilization of peer tutors may change the trajectory of these students’ educational journey by helping them achieve and feel capable in an area in which they all too often are frustrated and unsuccessful. Inquiry Guiding Questions The questions guiding this inquiry are as follows: 1. What effect does a peer tutoring program have on the improvement of students’ attitude and mindset toward math? 2. How will the implementation of a peer tutoring program in Math 1 and Math 3 classrooms affect student growth toward math proficiency performance? 3. What effect does participation in a peer tutoring program have on the math self- efficacy of tutored students? Multiple data collection instruments will be used to answer each of these questions thoroughly. For question 2, benchmark data, North Carolina Check-in data, EVAAS, EOC data 11 will be collected. This data will offer growth and proficiency data to allow me to determine if each student met their growth measure and if they are proficient for their age and grade. I will also collect focus group and interview data from all students and teachers involved to conclude what other factors, if any, other than peer tutoring led to the changes in the quantitative data. For questions 1 and 3, anonymous peer tutee surveys, teacher interviews, and focus groups of Math 1 and Math 3 students will be collected and analyzed. The inquiry partners will assist in the coding of data followed by thematic analysis. Overview of Inquiry This inquiry utilizes an explanatory-sequential, mixed methods design grounded in improvement science. I chose this method specifically as improvement science guides the implementation of strategies, in this instance peer tutoring, to remedy an issue that data shows exist (Perry et al., 2020). The explanatory-sequential, mixed methods designation is an apt descriptor of this inquiry as secondary quantitative math testing data serves as the impetus for the inquiry; however, qualitative data will need to be collected at the conclusion of the inquiry to fully determine whether the quantitative findings are the result of the peer tutoring program (Mertler, 2022). To help with structuring and organizing this inquiry, I will conduct three phases of inquiry, with each phase driven by a plan-do-study-act cycle of continuous improvement. Plan- Do-Study-Act (PDSA) refers to a four-stage improvement model to assist in planning and carrying out a change, then continuing the cycle based on what is learned (Perry et al., 2020). The first phase, Phase I, of the inquiry involved planning, secondary data collection, and selection of peer tutors and tutees. The second phase (Phase II) will entail the implementation of peer tutoring partnerships in the Math 1 and Math 3 classrooms, with ongoing support from the 12 administration and teachers. The final phase of the inquiry (Phase III) will involve the collection of post-implementation data and subsequent analysis. Inquiry Partners Several partners will play a crucial role in the implementation process of this inquiry. These partners will include those from both the district and the school level. The district partners consist of the following: the superintendent, the district Curriculum and Instruction Team (CIET), and the high school director. The school-level partners consist of the following: the School Improvement Team (SIT) members, the THS lead counselor, CARE Corps advisors, the THS administration team, the Math 1 and Math 3 instructors, and the student peer tutors. Engagement with inquiry partners throughout the inquiry will be documented through meeting notes. Conceptual Framework The Youth Mentoring Model The Youth Mentoring Model is a conceptual framework that relies heavily on building positive relationships between two individuals in a mentor and mentee affiliation. In building affirmative rapport, the result is an increase in academics, positive behaviors, and social- emotional outcomes (Keller, 2005). Peer tutoring aims to improve students’ math knowledge and achievement but to also help build students’ confidence in the classroom and relationship- building ability. Student Peer Assisted Mentoring Student Peer Assisted Mentoring (SPAM) focuses on student engagement throughout the learning process. In this form of mentoring, it is theorized that if students act as teachers, and in doing so are assessing themselves and others, they will consistently remain engaged in their 13 learning (Duran, 2017). The framework closely follows Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). A student’s ZPD is the actual level of understanding or ability compared to the potential understanding or development through guidance or collaboration with more capable peers (Eun, 2019). Definition of Key Terms The following terms will be used throughout this inquiry and are defined as follows: Attitude – how a person responds to an event or something (Meral, 2019). Average Daily Membership (ADM) – number of students enrolled in school within a specific time period (NCDPI, n.d.). Cognitive Effect – of, relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity (Baumert et al., 2010). COVID-19 – a mild to severe respiratory illness that is caused by the coronavirus (Johns & Mills, 2021). Curriculum – the courses that are taught by a school, college, etc. (Hilsdon, 2014). Education Value-Added Assessment System (EVAAS) – Measures growth for school accountability and educator effectiveness (NCDPI, n.d.). End-of-Course (EOC) Assessment – tool used to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs or students (NCDPI n.d.). Growth – amount of academic progress that students make over the course of a grade or class (NCDPI, n.d.). Highly Qualified – a teacher that has passed the PRAXIS II state test, has a graduate degree in content area, or is National Board Certified (NCDPI, n.d.). 14 Instruction – the act or process of imparting knowledge or skills to another (Dobbins et al., 2014). Mindset – set of beliefs that shape how you make sense of the world (Cherry, 2022). Professional Learning Communities (PLC) - made up of team members who regularly collaborate toward continued improvement in meeting learner needs through a shared curricular- focused vision (Reichstetter, 2006). Proficiency - student has demonstrated competence in relation to a set of skills of identified standards (NCDPI, n.d.). Standard - concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage in their education (NCDPI, n.d.). Self-Efficacy – a person’s belief in ability to achieve a goal (Cherry, 2022). Assumptions For this inquiry, it is assumed that math teachers are receptive to working with peers in their classrooms. Otherwise, teachers may wish to protect their instructional time, even when it is not utilized most effectively, and may not want anyone to invade that time. Additionally, it is assumed that teachers fully understand the content they are required to teach, and that the instruction is at a proficient level. I assume that all math teachers align their instruction to the NCSCOS. Standards alignment ensures students are provided access to the appropriate curriculum required to experience growth and achievement. Finally, it is assumed that all participants, students and teachers, will be accurate, honest, and forthcoming in their responses. 15 Scope and Delimitations The inquiry is intended to provide insight into THS math instructional challenges and the deficits many student learners face in Math 1 and 3. This inquiry will also provide potential benefits of allowing peer tutors to assist these students within these classrooms to help increase math growth in both areas toward proficiency. To understand the effect of peer tutoring on student tutees’ confidence, surveys will be administered anonymously to both the tutor and tutee. Students will be able to offer feedback on how the peer tutors helped them and if they felt more confident in their learning in class after being assisted by tutors. Tutors will be able to express truthful feelings on the tutoring process and the ease of building rapport with the classroom teachers and tutees. There will also be focus groups to include students in both Math 1 and Math 3 to gain feedback regarding the peer tutoring opportunity they have been given. All students must take final assessments and End of Course state testing at the end of these courses, so the delimitations will not affect the inquiry. I will see the effect of peer tutoring on the growth of the students as evidenced by their growth measures in EVAAS, district benchmarks, and state check-ins. Limitations A possible limitation in the inquiry could include the lack of standard knowledge leading to a lack of effective knowledge for the student peer tutors. This will cause a direct negative effect on the instruction the student tutees receive while they are being assisted. In order to mitigate this limitation, I will require peer tutors to maintain a certain proficiency in classes, collect teacher recommendations prior to tutoring, and be fully proficient in the math course they are tutoring. 16 Another limitation is student attendance. THS currently has 690 students of the 740- student body missing a period of instruction during the semester. Attendance at the school is an issue. If the students not successful in Math 1 or Math 3 are not in class to receive instruction or assistance from the peer tutors, the inquiry results will be significantly limited. Another potential limitation in the inquiry could be the student peer tutors' confidence and communication skill set. The peer tutors can be high achieving and knowledgeable of math content, but if they lack confidence when explaining to another or lack efficient communication skills, then the tutoring sessions will be less effective. Significance of Inquiry The purpose of this inquiry is to measure the impact of peer tutoring in both Math 1 and Math 3 classrooms, as these are state testing classes using End of Course assessments and are a part of the formula of student, teacher, and school accountability. These classes account for approximately 10% of the taught curriculum each semester. Pending successful outcomes, the future intention would be to expand this model to other areas in the school. The results of this inquiry could offer strategies to assist students in the classroom to build confidence in struggling learners and increase math mastery. Other content area mastery could be increased should the strategy be extended to other courses. Advancing Equity and Social Justice Students come into the school building from all types of environments and learning capacities. Inequities are evident from one location to another regarding resources in classrooms and schools, the experience of teachers, mathematics knowledge of teachers, confidence of educators, or home internet. Some school systems lack the proper funding to equip teachers with the necessary resources and training to be successful in math classrooms. A structure such as 17 peer tutoring is a way to assist at-risk students while also increasing mastery of the peer tutees. (Morales et al., 2016) shows positive gains for both the peer tutor and peer tutee after several weeks at a high-poverty school where same-age peer tutoring was implemented. The implementation of a framework with mentoring that focuses on building positive relationships to increase academic, behavioral, as well as social and emotional outcomes could possibly increase equity in a school that perhaps has deficits in these areas. Implementing a framework that focuses on the whole child and meets each child’s individual needs is imperative to ensure equity in the classroom. Advances in Practice The findings from this inquiry may prove beneficial to increase math knowledge and scores for both the school and the district. This inquiry could increase the limited existent literature on the effects of peer tutoring at a secondary level and specifically on increasing mathematics scores. The inquiry may also advance our understanding of the impact of peer tutoring on the confidence of the peer tutees while assisting educators in classrooms and helping bridge deficits in math standards. Summary There are multiple advantages to the frameworks Youth Mentoring Model and Student Peer Assisted Model being implemented for students in high school while being peer tutored in math. The frameworks can contribute to higher student engagement and an increased desire to learn, even when that is difficult (Kirkham & Ringelstein, 2008). They can also reinforce positive relationships between mentor and student, whether that is peer to peer or peer to teacher (Keller, 2005). 18 The next chapter will elaborate more on the research underpinning the conceptual frameworks applied in this inquiry and offer more insight on the research-based reasonings of why students have academic struggles in the first place. The chapter will also focus on the existent literature of the curriculum, self-efficacy of students, and mindset of educators. Chapter 3 will move into the methods used in the inquiry and the Plan-Do-Study-Act cycles, while Chapter 4 will review the results of the inquiry, and the data collected. Finally, Chapter 5 will summarize the inquiry and establish the next steps based on the inquiry’s determining factors. CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE The purpose of this inquiry is to measure the impact peer tutoring causes on student growth and mastery in math as well as student self-efficacy and confidence. This chapter examines two conceptual frameworks that act as windows allowing for the inquiry to be explained and analyzed. The Youth Mentoring Model allows for the social and emotional needs of the youth involved in the inquiry to be met. The Student Peer Assisted Mentoring framework, like the Youth Mentoring Model is critical in the inquiry as it implements peers working alongside youth to assist in academics and social settings. In addition to the frameworks, this chapter provides a review of literature on current math achievement crisis that also leads into a teacher pipeline issue. The role of environmental factors influencing education and mathematics is also examined, along with a deeper probe into self- efficacy. Conceptual Framework Two researched frameworks could prove beneficial in this inquiry. Youth Mentoring Model (YMM) and Student Peer Assisted Mentoring (SPAM) seek to develop skills in both the tutor and tutee in multiple facets (Kirkham & Ringelstein, 2008). By utilizing both YMM and SPAM in this inquiry, and allowing them to web into one another, students can develop a deeper level of their own understanding in math and school in general, while developing the necessary skill sets to become more successful in all aspects of life. If all inquiry partners understand each framework and how they coexist in this inquiry, they can look through the lens needed for students to become independent learners and become capable individuals. 20 Student Peer Assisted Mentoring SPAM uses three overarching principles that the peer tutor or mentor can work with the tutee or mentee on. This could work directly from class on a certain skill set by utilizing a scaffolding reciprocal approach, self-help to ensure the learner is becoming an independent worker, and lastly, meeting to address a tutee's academic or emotional needs. Kirkham and Ringelstein (2008) state that SPAM has been highly effective in building student retention and learning at a much deeper level for both tutor and tutee as they are both held accountable for learning. The tutor is learning more leadership skills-based abilities, while the tutee is crafting the academic skill in a less threatening manner due to the strong rapport offered by a peer relationship. SPAM offers students a sense of belonging. They are both learning to be a teacher in a way and learning self-motivating ways to want to increase their success. One student may feel a lack of confidence, making them feel less likely to be involved in classroom or school activities, while another student may find it difficult to make friends due to their higher academic abilities. SPAM can build the confidence of both, increasing confidence and helping students find a sense of belonging (Pye et al., 2016). SPAM is like Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. There is an actual level of understanding and a potential level of understanding that a student can certainly get to through the guidance or collaboration of a capable peer (Eun, 2019). The key is to keep students engaged in their learning, allow them to assess themselves and others, and feel as though they have the potential to mentor or teach others. This is what SPAM seeks to help students accomplish (Duran, 2017). Aside from possessing effective teaching strategies, the SPAM framework could help students increase their confidence in the school and in all of their classes. They will feel they have a person to really rely on and make them feel 21 comfortable, in turn making them more confident in their academics. Figure 2 illustrates Vygotsky’s ZPD. The Youth Mentoring Model The Youth Mentoring Model (YMM), resembling SPAM, works through positive relationships and student engagement. YMM reinforces relationships that can be complex. This may be a network of relationships between a child and another child, or a child and an adult or mentor (Keller, 2005). This framework is built on the belief that through trust in a mentoring relationship, students will improve in their social-emotional development, academic development, and socially. By doing so, relationships will improve at home and at school causing better behaviors, grades, and emotional state (Dubois et al., 2011). Perhaps one of the most important aspects of YMM is that this framework in a realistic setting does not have to be huge moments full of success. Instead, it may be many small, boring moments, even frustrating moments, using humor, or vulnerable moments that help form bonds (Rhodes, 2005). Much like parenting, children need to feel that they can speak about things without feeling threatened by someone who is positive and models appropriate behaviors. Tutors can act as a security blanket for some students and help with other relationship matters students are dealing with. Like SPAM, YMM can help increase students’ confidence socially and emotionally, allowing them to feel that same confidence in the academic setting. Figure 3 illustrates the connections between building encouraging mentoring relationships and the positive outcomes in academics and social-emotional needs in students. Understanding the Math Achievement Crisis Multiple pieces contribute to the puzzle of the math crisis education is currently facing. The lack of trained teachers in classrooms, resources and funding in schools, single-parent 22 Note. (Salmon, n.d.). Figure 2. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. 23 Note. (Dubois, 2011). Figure 3. The Youth Mentoring Model framework. 24 homes, and discrimination toward minorities and female students are a few of the barriers presented in the research (Di Martino & Gregorio, 2019). Research states that by 8th grade, only basic math skills are taught and rarely mastered by students, leading to current educational reform agendas. Only 12% of high school seniors are considered proficient in math when they graduate and move to higher education or the workforce (Dobbins et al., 2014). Leaders are focused on Curriculum-Based Evaluation (CBE) and Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) tools in hopes to begin closing achievement gaps in mathematics, meaning schools progress monitor students’ performance as well as hold teachers accountable for their teaching strategies through consistent, frequent assessment (Kelley et al., 2008). There is a strong relationship between science and math. Science is not fully and holistically taught in elementary settings, adding to the mathematics crisis. Pushing certain curricula aside has created a lack of engagement for students and caused a lack of creativity in planning from teachers. The demise of hands-on lessons, cooperation, participation and discussion, and beneficial field trips for students has contributed to less engagement for students. Perhaps this issue is due to the consistent budget fluctuations for math and science education. Federal budgets have ranged year to year from 13 million to 54 million, then from 4 million to 125 million (Di Martino & Gregorio, 2019). The Impact of Curriculum and Pedagogy Districts, schools, school leaders, and teachers are held accountable for students to meet all academic achievement goals as set forth by the state (Bal, 2016). Each day, teachers are expected to give students high-quality instruction and pedagogy, however, it must be considered that not all teachers are receiving the proper training before instructing students to successfully do this. Individual learning support for teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge is needed for lower-than-desired student achievement (Baumert et al., 2010). Teacher content knowledge is 25 crucial. When teachers do not have a clear understanding of what they are responsible for teaching, or a focus of pedagogy, students show a lack of engagement. Student engagement is critical for success in mathematics. The direct relationship in decreased risk of dropout rates and student engagement is extraordinary (Duran, 2017). Multiple curricula have been researched to study the effectiveness of multiple teachers in different and diverse classroom settings. Some show more effectiveness than others, however, all with several criteria in common. The most effective curricula depend on the teacher’s mathematics knowledge, teacher’s attitude toward mathematics, and the need for differentiation in classrooms (Agodini & Harris, 2016). One possible cause of the lack of standard knowledge is that there are teachers in classrooms that are not fully licensed. These teachers are more likely to be underprepared to instruct in certain subjects yet hired to teach students because a highly qualified teacher cannot be found. These teachers are in almost all schools nationwide, especially in high-poverty areas where highly qualified teachers are needed the most. These teachers may lack successful teaching strategies and lack profundity in lesson planning and their learning (Starr, 2012). Teacher Pipeline When a teacher feels they lack knowledge in their curriculum, they feel inadequate. They feel unprepared and are unprepared. They are unable to complete their assignment for students and be effective in their classroom. This can and will lead to frustration and further the academic learning gap, but is not the only existing issue in education that teachers face and that is causing teacher vacancies (Chappel, 2018). Not only is student achievement in mathematics a crisis, but there is also a crisis in the lack of qualified math teachers available to teach. We have schools filled with under-qualified staff and inexperienced administration overseeing instruction that continues to layer issues to our mathematics problem (Posamentier, 2003). Research does not 26 prove that we do not have enough teachers to replace those that retire. In fact, nationally there are enough when many states look at the numbers. However, education graduates site financial issues or lack of satisfaction in an internship as the largest reason for not entering the profession officially in some areas (Moeller et al., 2016). Many teachers, particularly in math and science, state there is no incentive to stay and leave the education field altogether (R. Ingersoll & Perda, 2009). Schools have had vacancies yearly in the past as the school year began. They may have had several within a district that they could not fill. However, there are currently critical areas that lack teachers in math, science, exceptional teachers, and English Language Learners. COVID-19 created a larger deficit in vacancies as many teachers over 50 made the decision to retire, others could not handle the increase in discipline issues, and some realized they enjoyed the virtual setting. With teachers being skilled in so many areas, this made it simple to make a career change, most times being offered more money (Gunn & Latham, 2022). It is more critical than ever for districts to recruit math and science teachers to prepare students for future career options. The hiring crisis is leading many districts to hire part-time teachers and unlicensed teachers (Losi, 2005). Some districts are offering signing bonuses to retain or recruit often upwards of $20,000 in North Carolina. Universities are not only graduating less students in traditional teacher preparation programs but also in other program areas causing fewer alternative licensure teachers as well (Gunn & Latham, 2022). There is a significant decline in math graduates that are willing to become teachers. When surveyed, students state this decision is due to students’ experiences during their own math instruction (Di Martino & Gregorio, 2019). Mindset The teacher mindset is most often the first step of success in a classroom. It can hinder or help create student accomplishment. When students are assisted with learning and motivation 27 through pedagogy in the classroom, they will feel as though they can meet their goals (Arco- Tirado et al., 2011). Perhaps one of the most beneficial outcomes of a positive mindset in the classroom is the optimistic relationships between student and teacher, and the self-esteem that is dramatically increased for the student (Morales et al., 2016). How teachers view curriculum, standards, and student success will determine how students achieve (Raymond & Reeder, 2020). Student growth is measured by how students communicate their feelings about their learning, their scores, understanding of their achievement, testing data, and motivation in school. If a teacher supports and utilizes peer reciprocal tutoring in class, both the tutor and tutee have the potential to improve in academics and emotional well-being. Appropriate communication can be modeled, social skills have the capability to improve, and understanding can grow, but it all begins with the teacher’s willingness to accept this mindset (Ansuategui & Miravet, 2017). In summary, multiple factors contribute to the mathematics crisis educators are currently facing. There seems to be no quick answer to the ongoing issue to help eliminate the achievement or hiring issues. Teachers must be well-trained, receive on-going support, and fully know and understand what they are responsible for teaching. Educators must keep the positive mindset and be open to unique pedagogy and strategies, such as peer tutoring structures, to help support student and remove barriers in classrooms to promote self-esteem and growth in math achievement. Environmental Factors Impacting Achievement Several environment factors impact achievement for all students. Environmental factors are most often those elements that are unavoidable. When such dynamics occur, students must keep learning, but often in simply the best way offered or available depending on the severity of the situation. 28 COVID-19 From teacher hiring to the student attendance issues, there is not much in education or the entire world that COVID-19 has not affected. Everything changed as the virus spread through the world and, even as things get back to a new normal, we are forever altered. TSD shut down in March 2020 for the remainder of the school year and set up online only. We reopened virtually in the Fall of 2020, then moved to two days a week for students. The following year we opened fully to all students. One change COVID-19 caused is the stress it put on educators. While schools tried to keep learning consistent online, most students struggled to keep up and to effectively learn (Johns & Mills, 2021). The most severe learning loss was in the lower grades where students are learning at a faster rate for math and reading. Schools are now leaning into intervention structures such as Multi-Tiered Support System (MTSS) to enable students to catch up, but many students are still at a detrimental point in learning (Wyse et al., 2020). While COVID-19 did help some students no longer be no-shows in their classes as they could join with just a click, it still did little to address their engagement in their learning and mastery of curriculum (Gregg & Shin, 2021). With the return to traditional learning formats, many students have still opted to stay online (Wyse et al., 2020). The data is still not clear on the general picture of how great the learning loss is, however, at THS is feels significant. Non-Health Factors During COVID-19, THS like most other schools across the nation had plans in place for online learning. That has not always been the case for missed instruction, nor is it the case now for days missed due to inclement weather or other events. Research suggests student absenteeism is likely connected to students not completing high school (Bennett, 2022). They get behind and it is too overwhelming trying to catch up. This creates detrimental effects for student 29 achievement, especially in math. There is a direct correlation with absences and instructional time being missed due to weather, such as snow, flooding, or tornados. Beginning in the 2016-2017 school year, TSD did not have one uninterrupted school year until 2022-2023. Some school years received more devastating inclement weather than others pre COVID-19. For example, two years our district was out of school for several weeks and hundreds of students were displaced from their homes due to flooding. Local schools were damaged and THS was used as a Red Cross shelter for multiple weeks serving hundreds of community members and neighbors. Other years, we were only out for a week to two weeks for ice and snow. Aside from weather incidences, there are many other factors contributing to lack of achievement. There is a yearly fluctuation in education budgets. It can go from 13 million to 54 million to 125 million within three years’ time. One in three students go home to no adult present to help with homework or to provide food. Many are in single family homes that lack resources. One out of five students live in a non-English speaking home (Almaguer, 2005). Most youth lack creativity, interest in civic issues, and work ethic in comparison with previous generations (Twenge, 2013). According to Twenge, young students know what they want and have high expectations, however, lack the work ethic to obtain those goals. This could potentially present an issue in required school curriculum because some students simply feel that math is not necessary for real life regardless if it is required for a diploma (Dobbins et al., 2014). Students do not feel that certain curriculum is relevant or important for them and their future goals, especially if they find it difficult. Accompany that with how some teachers view their content and standards which creates a lack of alignment and less than desirable mindset, and a student is in for a no win and no learn situation (Raymond & Reeder, 2020). 30 Self-Efficacy A student’s self-efficacy is perhaps one of the strongest predictors of how he or she will attain a goal of achievement set forth by a teacher or for themselves (Heslin & Klehe, 2006). As seen in Figure 4, self-efficacy for a student can come through previous experiences, motivational conversations from a respected peer or adult, or positive social-emotional health. A student’s self-efficacy in math is a significant determining factor of academic achievement. Self-efficacy can be compared to The Little Engine that Could. When a student believes he or she can succeed, oftentimes he or she will succeed. Students with high self-efficacy are not afraid of challenges, and do not turn away from more difficult work (Ahmad & Safaria, 2013). These students tend to show better work ethic in schools and do not give up just because work becomes difficult. In fact, a study showed that students with high self-efficacy scored higher on a math test even though all students had the same achievement level. Data of other studies have shown that the self-efficacy of high school students needs to be significantly increased in order to increase math achievement (Liu & Koirala, 2009). It is imperative to build the self-efficacy in students typically falling in the lower range of learning, as self-efficacy can determine what effects attitude, sense of self, and the emotional state of students have on academics (Robinson et al., 2005). There are many future life and work plans that are directly determined by student math and science interests and achievement. Student confidence must be higher to compete globally. Students are bored and many do not believe math is important and will simply avoid it. Having effective pedagogy, possessing high expectations and equity for all, and teaching with real world examples decrease math anxiety and increase students’ self-efficacy (Furner & Berman, 2005). 31 Note. (Kundu, 2020). Figure 4. Self-efficacy in education. 32 Self-efficacy is one of several effective predictors of students’ achievement success and motivation to learn in school. Students have a perception of how capable they are in certain areas of their academics and that is their motivation to be persistent and put in more effort (Zimmerman, 2000). High School Student Self-Efficacy High school student self-efficacy refers to a student’s belief in their own abilities and competence to succeed in the various academic and non-academic tasks they encounter during their high school years (Bartimote-Aufflick et al., 2016). Self-efficacy is a crucial psychological concept that can greatly influence a student’s academic performance, motivation, and overall well-being. Past experiences, whether positive or negative, can boost or lower self-efficacy. Supportive teachers, parents, and peers can directly contribute to a student’s self-efficacy. Encouragement and constructive feedback from students’ support systems are vital. Students must have modeling from others successful in similar tasks that can lead to mastery experiences to help them set and attain achievable goals and increase self-efficacy. When high school students begin to increase self-efficacy, they begin to believe in their capacity to perform well in academic tasks in all subject areas, therefore influencing their willingness to tackle challenging coursework (van Rooij et al., 2017). Increased self-efficacy can impact a student’s study habits. Students are more likely to use effective study strategies, manage their time efficiently, and seek help from others when needed. They are also more likely to set academic and personal goals as they believe their efforts can lead to achievement. Students with increasing self-efficacy tend to persevere in the pursuit of these goals, even when they encounter challenges or failures. Self-efficacy is not limited to academics, however. It can also influence a student’s willingness to get involved in extracurricular activities such as sports, 33 clubs, or volunteer work, which can contribute to positive relationships with peers and adults (Forgeard & Benson, 2019). Fostering high school self-efficacy is important for overall development, motivation, and academic success. Teachers, parents, peers, and mentors can play a significant role in nurturing and enhancing a student’s self-efficacy by providing support, setting realistic goals, and helping students build their strengths and successes. Self-Efficacy and Math Performance Math performance in high school can have a significant impact on a student’s academic and career prospects (Froiland & Davison, 2016). Students' performance is measured by the grades received in math courses such as algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, and other advanced math subjects. Good grades indicate a strong understanding of mathematical concepts. Standardized testing like the SAT (originally known as Scholastic Aptitude Test), the American College Test (ACT), and End of Course tests (EOC), often either include math sections or test students’ knowledge of math concepts. High scores on these tests can open doors to college admissions and scholarships, making strong math performance critical for those planning higher education as many college majors and career paths require a strong foundation in math. High school math performance can determine whether a student is adequately prepared for their desired college major or career (Liu & Koirala, 2009). Math performance in high school has far- reaching implications for a student’s academic and career trajectory. It is important for students to focus on building strong math skills, seek support when needed, and maintain a positive attitude towards math to excel in this area. Math self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their own ability to perform math- related tasks and solve math problems. This concept is derived from Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of self-beliefs in shaping behavior and performance 34 (Ewen, 2010). Math self-efficacy influences a range of factors and can be developed to promote more positive and successful experiences with mathematics. High math self-efficacy is often associated with greater motivation and effort in math tasks. When students believe in their ability to succeed in mathematics, they are more likely to invest time and energy in studying, problem-solving, and learning math concepts. This increased effort can lead to better math performance (Pietsch et al., 2003). High math efficacy can also cause students to be more persistent when faced with math challenges. They are less likely to give up when they encounter difficult problems and are more willing to persevere in finding solutions. This persistence can lead to improved math performance over time. Students with higher math efficacy are also more willing to take risks in math-related situations. They are not as afraid to make mistakes because they believe they can learn from them. This can also lead to a deeper understanding of math and better performance. Those with strong math efficacy are more likely to employ effective learning strategies. They actively seek out resources, ask questions, and practice regularly to improve their math skills, leading them to higher performance. Math anxiety is a common issue that can hinder math performance (Hoffman, 2010). High self- efficacy in math can help reduce math anxiety because individuals believe in their ability to handle math challenges. With these strengths allowed by higher math efficacy, individuals are more likely to choose advanced math courses and pursue math-related careers. This self- selection can lead to better math performance as they engage with more challenging and math- intensive content. Self-efficacy is not solely determined by one’s actual math abilities. It is a belief system that can be influenced by past experiences, feedback from teachers and peers, and the learning environment. Encouraging and nurturing math self-efficacy, particularly in educational settings, 35 can play a crucial role in improving math performance and fostering a positive attitude toward mathematics. Peer Tutoring Peer tutoring is an educational strategy in which students help each other learn and understand content. It involves one student, the tutor, providing assistance, explanation, and support to another student (Ali et al., 2015). Peer tutoring can be beneficial for both the tutor and the tutee, as it fosters collaboration and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Peer tutoring can be very successful when students are paired correctly and with self-efficacy in mind. The social value of a tutor or peer depends directly on a student and his or her success (Madaio et al., 2017). Pairing correctly and with relationship building in mind have a direct effect on the achievement of students involved in peer tutoring models. A student's motivation and their belief in self is a strong predictor of if they will achieve a goal (Heslin & Klehe, 2006). One possible effective strategy is peer tutoring in the math classroom. This strategy offers collaboration and can lead to an increase in self-esteem and math confidence for both the peer tutor and peer tutee (Tang et al., 2022). Peer tutoring is a cooperative learning strategy with the potential to greatly benefit all students. The potential effects of tutoring in self-concept, attitudinal, and academic performance is outstanding (Ansuategui & Miravet, 2017). Peer tutoring can assist struggling learners to increase math knowledge and understanding as well as assist students in their ability to focus and engage and support behaviors (Capp et al., 2018). Relationships are imperative for student success. Students assigned a peer tutor often feel less threatened and a sense of confidence that enables them to allow barriers keeping them from learning to be less present (Madaio et al., 2017). Instead of focusing on what they do not know, they can focus on just starting to learn. When paired appropriately, peers allow students a safe 36 space to not feel embarrassed or self-conscious, but instead just to be able to start digging into what they need for academic success. In most successful peer tutoring models, there is plenty of opportunity for interaction and communication between the peer tutor and peer tutee (Capp et al., 2018). When students feel like they have a rapport with someone at school, they feel like they have a reason to attend and do well. Many times, this will keep students in school and decrease dropout rates (Nazzal, 2002). Even if a student does not excel academically because of a peer tutor, if it helps a student socially or emotionally, it is still a successful investment. In fact, many students notice a decrease in behavior issues within themselves when working with a peer. Regardless of background, race, gender, or socioeconomic status, simply having a positive relationship helped decrease negative behaviors and increase engagement in classes (Enright & Axelrod, 1995). Students report an increase in response time, focus on read aloud, and enjoy being provided with immediate feedback from a peer. They also report fewer social issues in school when they work with a peer. Peer tutoring is a cooperative learning concept for all students, however some groups, such as English Language Learners, can really benefit from a peer tutoring model when they are paired with another student that is able to remove language barriers and offer that support in class (Cole, 2013). This concept offers these students the ability to perform much better and have the access they would not ordinarily have. Furthermore, all students benefit from cooperative and collaborative teaching strategies, and that is precisely what peer tutoring is (Tang et al., 2022). Teachers find that by doing this strategy, they have more instructional class time. A terrifying statistic is that only 12% of high school seniors are proficient in math when they graduate (Dobbins et al., 2014). It could be argued that students may not need geometry in real life, yet it is a requirement to receive a high school diploma. Students, especially with 37 learning issues, need support and unique methods of instruction to help them in their math instruction to learn. Group learning and peer mediated learning is one strategy that can be effective with these students. In some structures, students can even take turns being the learner and the teacher (Johnson, 2017). Peer tutoring is striving to have student centered learning versus teacher centered learning. Students can show significant growth when they are taught to be independent learners. Peer tutoring allows for interaction and real world application in any area of curriculum (Gregg & Shin, 2021). Peers can talk to one another differently and without stress. They can offer supplemental instruction, be leaders in the classroom, help students benefit from social engagement, communication, and content knowledge. This can create an outcome of higher confidence in school, higher academic grades, and less stress. Education is expanding and growing, but the number of qualified teachers is not. Peer tutoring is an effective way to help this unbalanced issue (Falchikov, 2001). The world is diverse, and everyone is different. We must cultivate those differences and help students learn from that diversity. Heterogeneity is reality. The world demands collaboration so that is what students need to learn to do in schools. Peer tutoring can assist in learning these skills with appropriate communication, social skills, understanding another, expressing feelings, and appropriately confronting (Ansuategui & Miravet, 2017). Peer Tutoring in High School Relationships with peers in high school play an essential role in the social, emotional, and academic development of students. The interaction and connections with peers can have a profound impact on a high school student’s well-being, self-esteem, and overall experience (Swenson et al., 2008). High school is a time when students begin to form close friendships with 38 peers, and these friendships can be an important source of emotional support and companionship. Many adolescents often form or join social groups, such as clubs or sports teams. They often seek to define their identity and find like-minded peers who share their interests and values. Peer relationships can be complex and multifaceted. They contribute to students’ social, emotional, and psychological development. Often, students lack the ability to form these vital bonds with peers, causing declines socially and academically. Peer tutoring can help support and increase students’ success in forming these relationships with others by modeling effective social communication skills and creating a successful environment. Tutors often develop empathy, while tutees may experience an increase in confidence. Peer tutoring can reduce social isolation and promote inclusion while offering a sense of responsibility (Thurston et al., 2020). Peer Tutoring in Mathematics Peer tutoring in high school has several benefits. It provides students with additional academic support in courses where students face challenging coursework, fosters a sense of community, encourages active learning and teaching, and can lead to improved academic performance (Longwill & Kleinert, 1998). It also allows students to develop valuable teaching and interpersonal skills, which can benefit them academically and in their future careers. Peer tutoring in high school math classrooms is often beneficial as it allows tutors to break down mathematical concepts and skills for students who may be struggling in math (Gan & Hong, 2010). Students can learn content from their peers, often in a more relatable and understandable way. Tutors can show complex concepts and explain them in a manner that resonates with the tutee. Tutors develop their communication and teaching skills, which can be valuable in various aspects of life. They learn to convey information effectively, answer questions, and provide feedback. Tutees may experience a boost in confidence when they realize they can successfully 39 learn from a peer. They may be more willing to ask questions and seek help when needed. Tutors can adapt their teaching style to match the learning style of the tutee, providing more personalized support than a one-size-fits-all approach. By pairing students thoughtfully based on their needs in mathematics, personalities, and learning styles, a teacher can create an essential learning environment that is comfortable and conducive for learning. Tutors can regularly assess the progress of the tutees and the teachers can progress monitor both the tutors and tutees (Moliner & Alegre, 2020). This can foster a positive relationship between students and create a sense of community and support within the classroom. This dynamic often reinforces tutors own understanding of math as they teach, deepening their knowledge and skills. Peer tutoring can be a valuable component of a comprehensive math program. It can help students overcome challenges, enhance their understanding of math concepts, and develop strong peer relationships within the classroom setting. Summary There are various causes for the math achievement crisis. Teacher pipeline shortages, curriculum issues, and learning loss all contribute to students struggling in math classrooms. To increase math achievement, student self-efficacy and confidence need to increase. One strategy implemented through the frameworks SPAM and YMM is peer tutoring. Chapter 3 will detail the mixed method approach of the inquiry, including the guiding questions, the rationale, the three phases including the pilot study, and instrumentation. It will also include data collection and analysis. CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF INQUIRY This chapter outlines the methods used for implementation, data collection, and data analysis for this inquiry. Each of the inquiry phases, instrumentation types, data collection, and analysis procedures are detailed. Assumptions, delimitations, and limitations are also addressed. To increase math growth toward proficiency, this inquiry examined the implementation of a student engagement framework along with a mentoring framework to encourage peer tutoring in math classrooms at a traditional high school. Inquiry Guiding Questions The questions guiding this inquiry were as follows: 1. What effect does a peer tutoring program have on the improvement of students’ attitudes and mindset toward math? 2. How will the implementation of a peer tutoring program in Math 1 and Math 3 classrooms affect student growth toward math proficiency performance? 3. What effect does participation in a peer tutoring program have on the math self- efficacy of tutored students? The effectiveness of the inquiry was determined using the data collected from the implementation of the framework of student-peer relationships and student engagement through peer learning. Context of the Inquiry Deficits in student math performance have been an ongoing challenge for THS. From 2013-2022, THS has proven to have lower achieving scores as seen in Table 1. For several years, both academic growth and student performance hovered consistently at a C, as seen in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively. The grade of C was assigned by the North Carolina Department of 41 Table 1 THS Math 1 and Math 3 Proficiency Rates by Year School Year Math 1 % Proficient Math 3 % Proficient 2013-2014 44.7 -- 2014-2015 29.5 -- 2015-2016 25.8 -- 2016-2017 42.2 -- 2017-2018 53.6 -- 2018-2019 55 21.9 2019-2020 N/A: No data due to COVID N/A: No data due to COVID 2020-2021 15.6 (Virtual/Hybrid) 11.9 (Virtual/Hybrid) 2021-2022 2022-2023 2023-2024 21.6 23.6 32.43 34.9 36.7 43.88 Note. (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, n.d.). 42 Note. (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, n.d.). Figure 5. THS schoolwide academic growth by year. 53.3 57.1 58.6 55.4 52.3 52.1 84.1 83.0 89.2 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022 2023 2024 Academic Growth by Percentage Y ea r Exceeded Met Not Met 43 Note. (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, n.d.). Figure 6. THS schoolwide performance grade score by year. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022 2023 2024 Performance Score Y ea r 44 Public Instruction. Based on End of Course assessments in high school, along with multiple other academic indicators, all schools are assigned a performance grade given through a formula of student growth and achievement (Bietenbeck et al., 2018). In 2017, a surge in growth and performance moved the school out of relatively low standing, only leading to inconsistencies as the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction changed how Math 1 would count for students toward high school accountability. In 2017 the North Carolina State Board of Education allowed the flexibility of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) for the following school year 8th grade Math 1 scores to begin counting at the middle school level in place of the 8th grade Math End of Grade assessment. The scores would no longer be banked for the student’s high school accountability score. In 2016-2017 Math 1, students showed an improvement from 25% to 42% grade level proficiency. THS has shown extreme inconsistency in proficiency on the EOC as the numbers fluctuate from single digits to well over 50% proficiency. Nevertheless, THS did remain at a higher level of growth and performance until 2020 when COVID attempted to halt all learning. Since returning from the pandemic response, the math scores have been as low as 15% and rising to 22.5% in Math I, and a low of 11.9% rising to 36.7% in Math 3. To close the gap in achievement for the students at THS, the school will continue the partnership with AmeriCorps/Collaborative Action Rural Education (CARE) Corps to assist in selecting qualified peer tutors. CARE Corps is through East Carolina University. They will run the selection process and then the training process of each peer tutor. For a student to be selected as a CARE Corps peer tutor, he or she must complete an application online. The application includes a motivational statement, skills and experience, educational resume, community services, employment history, criminal history, optional information that is relevant, and two 45 professional references. CARE Corps affiliates and school personnel then work together to sort the applications and schedule interviews. Only CARE Corps advisors conduct interviews. Once selected, the peer tutors receive Inspire and Harmony training as well as SAGA training which focuses on accelerating learning and educational equity through relationships. The U.S. Department of Education (2019) highlights the fact that students not proficient in math and taking rigorous math courses by eighth grade, such as Algebra, are likely to not have a competitive edge in the workforce nor will be likely to attend college. Students enrolled in rigorous math classes tend to have a significantly higher income and education level into adulthood as compared to peers with poor achievement. There is a link between math achievement and later success in college and career (2019). Student math performance is a primary area of focus for improvement at THS. Research shows that students performing poorly in math are less likely to exhibit organization and time management skills, have a more difficult transition to college, or are less likely to attend college at all (Thiry, 2019). Inquiry Design and Rationale This inquiry employed an explanatory sequential, mixed methods design grounded in improvement science. In this type of research design, the researcher collects and analyzes data as determined by the research or inquiry questions. The data that is analyzed then guides the next set of data collection and analysis to allow a deeper view into the inquiry questions. Each of these data collections were accomplished in phases allowing for the data results to be interpreted. In mixed methods design, qualitative and quantitative data help gain a broader perspective on an area (Mertler, 2022). The inquiry was outlined by three Plan-Do-Study-Act phases as shown in Figure 7, as well as a pilot study. By using improvement research and PDSA phases, the 46 Note. (Katowa-Mukwato et al., 2021). Figure 7. Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle. 47 research was conducted in real life allowing data and theories to be tested by the researcher (Perry et al, 2020). Collaborative Inquiry Partners Collaborative inquiry partners were imperative for this inquiry. They will had an essential role in vetting instruments, data collection and analysis, and reviewing the inquiry results as seen in Table 2. The THS school district superintendent ensured the inquiry aligned with the district mission and goals. The Curriculum and Instruction Team (CIET) supported the administration by providing adequate resources and professional development to the peer tutors and teachers involved. THS district high school director provided access to CIET and other resources during the inquiry. School Improvement Team (SIT) members vetted resources and were a consistent strategic force throughout the inquiry. The lead counselor worked directly with peer tutors to support and guide them during the inquiry, while the administrative team ensured the peer tutors and teachers had the professional development and resources necessary to provide effective tutoring. Math 1 and Math 3 teachers ensured peer tutors are offering effective sessions during the inquiry, and student peer tutors actively engaged in peer tutoring sessions during classroom instruction throughout the day. Ethical Considerations To conduct this inquiry, several levels of approval were necessary. Additionally, ethical considerations had to be accounted for to ensure the privacy and protection of all participants involved in the inquiry. As such, I completed training in the ethical treatment of human subjects through the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI). Additionally, I obtained the district approval. Once district approval was obtained for the inquiry, I submitted and received approval for the inquiry through East Carolina University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). 48 Table 2 Collaborative Inquiry Partners Inquiry Partner Role in Inquiry THS School District Superintendent Ensured the inquiry aligned with the district mission and goals. THS District CIET Ensured the administration had necessary resources and professional development access to provide the peer tutors and teachers for instruction during the inquiry. THS School District High School Director Ensured the administration has access to CIET and resources during the inquiry. THS SIT Members Vetted all resources and was a strategic force during the inquiry to support instruction. THS Lead School Counselor CARE Corps Worked directly with peer tutors to support and guided them during the inquiry. Ensured peer tutors were selected and had appropriate training. THS Administration Team Ensured peer tutors and teachers have the consistent professional development and resources needed to provide effective tutoring during the inquiry. Math 1 and Math 3 Teachers Ensured peer tutors are offering effective sessions during the inquiry. Student Peer Tutors Ensured peer tutoring sessions during classroom instruction throughout the inquiry. 49 See Appendix A. All participants in the inquiry were provided confidentiality in their responses and had their identities masked in the reporting of results. Pseudonyms for the participants, district, and school were used throughout the inquiry. Each teacher and student who participated in the inquiry were informed of the inquiry, along with any inherent risks or benefits to participation. Teachers were provided a signature acknowledging consent. See Appendix B. Student informed consent was requested through parents or guardians and acknowledged with a signature. See Appendix C for an English-language version and Appendix D for a Spanish-language version of the student informed consent form. Additionally, students involved in focus groups were asked to acknowledge informed assent. See Appendix E for the English language version and Appendix F for the Spanish language version. All electronic data collected specifically for the purpose of this inquiry was stored on my personal computer and locked by a personal passcode as well as in a digital folder, which is also locked by a passcode. No one else had or will have access other than myself. The data will be stored for three years and then destroyed. Inquiry Procedures This inquiry was implemented at THS in three phases involving Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles throughout each phase. Phase I was the planning and development phase and included the pilot study. The phase allowed for the collection of baseline data for the inquiry. Phase II implemented the conceptual frameworks for mentoring, Math 1 and Math 3 classroom peer tutoring, and leadership growth opportunities for peer tutors. This phase allowed for the collection of progress monitoring data mid-inquiry. Phase III allowed for qualitative and quantitative data collection and comprehensive data analysis post-implementation. 50 Phase I Phase I included the pilot study to refine all instruments to be utilized in the actual data collection. I also began initial data collection through surveys, focus groups, and interviews to gain preliminary data regarding math, feelings about school and success in the classroom, and mindset about peer tutoring from all perspectives. Plan To validate all u