ABSTRACT Lori Frederick Collins, THE SWEET SPOT OF MENTORING MINDS AND BUILDING SUPPORT (Under the direction of Dr. Matthew Militello). Department of Educational Leadership, December, 2023. The Focus of Practice (FoP) of this Participatory Action Research (PAR) project was to develop mentors' knowledge, skills, and dispositions to identify and implement equitable classroom practices through coaching conversations with beginning teachers. The study examined what happens when mentors shift from essential check-ins with beginning teachers to meaningful coaching conversations around equitable practices. The setting was two elementary schools located in eastern North Carolina. During 21 months, I met with two school-based Lead Mentors who were co-practitioners and conducted three PAR cycles. The goal of each PAR cycle was to employ methodologies from community learning exchanges and engage the Co- Practitioner Research (CPR) group in a plan of action that improved what was currently taking place in schools. A new plan was implemented, followed by observations of Beginning Teacher (BT) Mentors and the effect within the context or setting of their classroom. The BT Mentor then conducted observations within the classroom of the BTs they directly supported using the same equitable practices, the Calling-On Tool. Explicitly, each lead mentor invited a BT mentor and the beginning teacher they supported to participate in using the Calling-On Tool. Lastly, both Lead Mentors and BT Mentors along with the BTs they directly supported reflected on their practices and the impact of equitable practices in the classroom, which revealed mentors need (a) knowledge of building safe environments that allow for belonging, (b) skills to implement equitable instructional practices that support learning for every child, and (c) the disposition that demonstrates behaviors impact positive relations. As a result, I developed a framework that creates a sweet spot for the mentor to support the beginning teacher by providing a sense of belonging that builds safety and trust in an equitable environment. THE SWEET SPOT OF MENTORING MINDS AND BUILDING SUPPORT TITLE A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership By Lori Frederick Collins December, 2023 Director of Dissertation: Matthew Militello, PhD Dissertation Committee Members: Lawrence Hodgkins, EdD Carrie Morris, EdD Lynda Tredway, MA Sandra Garbowicz David, PhD COPYRIGHT ©Copyright 2023 Lori Frederick Collins DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my dad, Lenzy Ray Frederick, who knew when I was 18 years old that education was the right path for me to follow. He taught all of his children to live by the motto of “Learn Something New Everyday”. You are missed dearly. I am thankful that I get to make sure that your namesake and my son, Jaxon Lenzy learns something new every day. And to my husband, James, thank you for your patience and love. Your prayers and support encourage me daily to be the best. Thank you for being who you are and making our home a place I want to be – forever my friend and always my love. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I deeply appreciate the guidance and support of my mentor and friend, Dr. Matthew Militello. The first training I received as an administrator was through a Community Learning Exchange you facilitated and led. It forever changed the projector of my identity as an educator. I am grateful for the opportunity to participate in Project i4 and learn from Dr. Millitello, Lynda Tredway, and Dr. Sandra “Garbo” David. All of you have immensely sown into me through your encouraging words to continue the work and gently nudging me to make it to the finish line. None of this would have come to fruition without your wisdom. I am indebted to the wonderful colleagues I met along the way especially those known as G-Unit. Thank you to the co-practisioners of this work along with the staff and faculty of Pitt County Schools. I appreciate your dedication to growing and building the capacity of mentors across the district. Tiredlessly you pour into beginning teachers and support them in developing their craftsmanship. You make a difference for those who come after you. And with a grateful heart, I say thank you to my husband James. During this journey, you served a congregation, the children of our community, and still made sure that our sons, Jaxon and Jordan spent quality time with their dad. You did all of this while allowing me to dedicate time to assignments and writing. You are so amazing and kind. You constantly push me to be great. Thank you to our family for your prayers and support especially, my mom and mother-in- law. It is because of all of you that this milestone was accomplished. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE .............................................................................................................................................. i COPYRIGHT .................................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ xii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1: FOCUS OF PRACTICE .......................................................................................... 1 The Focus of Practice .............................................................................................................. 2 Rationale, Analysis, and Significance of the FoP .................................................................... 2 Rationale ........................................................................................................................... 3 FoP Assets and Challenges ............................................................................................... 4 Macro Level Assets and Challenges ......................................................................... 7 Meso Level Assets and Challenges ........................................................................... 8 Micro Level Assets and Challenges .......................................................................... 8 Significance of the FoP .................................................................................................. 10 Context .................................................................................................................... 11 Significance to Practice ........................................................................................... 11 Significance to Policy .............................................................................................. 12 Significance to Research ......................................................................................... 12 FoP Connection to Equity ...................................................................................................... 12 Participatory Action Research Design ................................................................................... 14 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 15 Theory of Action ............................................................................................................ 15 Project Activities ............................................................................................................ 15 Confidentiality, Ethical Considerations and Limitations....................................................... 18 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 19 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 20 Beginning Teachers ............................................................................................................... 22 Teacher Shortage ............................................................................................................ 22 Beginning Teacher Induction ......................................................................................... 23 Beginning Teacher Support ............................................................................................ 25 Mentoring Beginning Teachers ............................................................................................. 26 Professional Development For Mentoring ..................................................................... 27 Effective Mentoring Relationships ................................................................................. 28 Mentoring Conversations ............................................................................................... 29 Equitable Classroom Practices .............................................................................................. 31 Learning Theory and Culture ......................................................................................... 32 Tasks and Academic Discourse ...................................................................................... 35 School Leadership That Supports CLRP ........................................................................ 37 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................... 40 Qualitative Research Design .................................................................................................. 41 Participatory Action Research ........................................................................................ 42 Improvement Science ..................................................................................................... 42 Network Improvement Communities ............................................................................. 43 Community Learning Exchange .............................................................................. 44 Role of Praxis .......................................................................................................... 47 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 48 Participatory Action Research Cycles ............................................................................ 48 Participants, Data Collection, and Analysis .......................................................................... 49 Participants ..................................................................................................................... 51 Data Collection ............................................................................................................... 51 Community Learning Exchange Artifacts ...................................................................... 52 Documents ...................................................................................................................... 52 Reflective Memos ........................................................................................................... 54 Member Checks .............................................................................................................. 54 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 54 Study Limitations................................................................................................................... 55 Internal Validation .......................................................................................................... 56 External Validation ......................................................................................................... 57 Confidentiality and Ethical Considerations ........................................................................... 58 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….58 CHAPTER 4: PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH PRE-CYCLE ................................... 59 PAR Context .......................................................................................................................... 59 Context the Place ............................................................................................................ 61 Context the People .......................................................................................................... 62 PAR Pre-Cycle Process ......................................................................................................... 64 CPR Sessions .................................................................................................................. 64 CLE Sessions .................................................................................................................. 68 Emergent Categories .............................................................................................................. 69 Teacher Behaviors Impact Student Relationships .......................................................... 70 Instructional Practices Support Student Learning .......................................................... 71 Safe Environments Allow Belonging ............................................................................. 72 Reflection and Planning ......................................................................................................... 72 Reflection on Leadership ................................................................................................ 73 Planning for PAR Cycle One ......................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER 5: PAR CYCLE ONE ................................................................................................ 76 PAR Cycle One Process ........................................................................................................ 76 Emerging Themes .................................................................................................................. 81 Teacher Behaviors Impact Student Relationships .......................................................... 83 Awareness ............................................................................................................... 83 Feedback .................................................................................................................. 86 Relationship ............................................................................................................. 87 Instructional Practices Support Student Learning .......................................................... 88 Inclusion .................................................................................................................. 88 Preparation .............................................................................................................. 91 Safe Environments Allow for Belonging ....................................................................... 92 Communication ....................................................................................................... 92 Balance Participation ............................................................................................... 95 Leadership Reflection and Action Steps for PAR Cycle Two .............................................. 98 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 99 CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS........................................................................................................... 101 PAR Cycle Two Process ...................................................................................................... 103 PAR Cycle Two Activities ........................................................................................... 103 Community Learning Exchanges (CPR Meetings) ............................................... 105 Reflective Memos ................................................................................................. 105 Post Conference and Meta-Coaching .................................................................... 106 Data Collection and Analysis ................................................................................ 106 Findings ............................................................................................................................... 113 Mentor Behaviors Impact Positive Relationship .......................................................... 115 Mentor Response to BTs ....................................................................................... 117 Positive Relationships with BTs ........................................................................... 120 BT Meetings .......................................................................................................... 120 Awareness of BT through Feedback ..................................................................... 121 Instructional Practices Support Learning ..................................................................... 123 Teacher Strategies ................................................................................................. 123 Instructional Practices ........................................................................................... 125 Engaging Instruction ............................................................................................. 127 Safe Environments Allow for Belonging ..................................................................... 129 Classroom Environment ........................................................................................ 129 Balanced Voices .................................................................................................... 132 Learning Environment ........................................................................................... 132 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 134 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................... 136 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................................ 140 Mentor Behaviors Impact Positive Relationships ........................................................ 144 Responding To BT’s Behavior .............................................................................. 145 Know BTs Through Positive Interaction .............................................................. 147 Host BT Meetings ................................................................................................. 148 Awareness Through Feedback .............................................................................. 150 Instructional Practices Support Student Learning ........................................................ 151 Strategies That Honor Diversity ............................................................................ 153 Instructional Practices ........................................................................................... 154 Engaging In Inclusive Instruction ......................................................................... 155 Safe Environments Allow for Belonging ..................................................................... 157 Classroom Environment and Culture .................................................................... 158 Balanced Voices .................................................................................................... 160 Learning Environment ........................................................................................... 161 Revisiting Research Questions ............................................................................................ 162 Research Question 1: Mentors Support BTs ................................................................ 162 Research Question 2 – Coaching Conversations and Equitable Practices ................... 165 New Implementation Framework: The Sweet Spot ............................................................. 166 Implications ......................................................................................................................... 171 Practice ......................................................................................................................... 171 Policy ............................................................................................................................ 172 State and National Policy (Macro) ........................................................................ 172 Local Policy (Micro and Meso)............................................................................. 173 Research ....................................................................................................................... 174 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 176 Leadership Development ..................................................................................................... 176 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 179 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 181 APPENDIX A: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL ....................................... 190 APPENDIX B: CITI TRAINING CERTIFICATE .................................................................... 191 APPENDIX C: DISTRICT APPROVAL ................................................................................... 192 APPENDIX D: CONSENT FORM: ADULTS .......................................................................... 193 APPENDIX E: REFLECTIVE MEMOS.................................................................................... 196 APPENDIX F: SAMPLE CLE AGENDA ................................................................................. 197 APPENDIX G: CODE BOOK.................................................................................................... 199 APPENDIX H: CONVERSATION GUIDE .............................................................................. 200 APPENDIX I: OBSERVATION WITH CODES....................................................................... 211 LIST OF TABLES 1. PAR Improvement Cycles ...................................................................................................... 50 2. Research Questions, Data Sources, Triangulation .................................................................. 53 3. PAR Pre-Cycle Activities ....................................................................................................... 65 4. PAR Cycle One Activities and Data ....................................................................................... 77 5. PAR Cycle One Emerging Theme 1 ....................................................................................... 84 6. PAR Cycle One Emerging Theme 2 ....................................................................................... 89 7. PAR Cycle One Emerging Theme 3 ....................................................................................... 93 8. Mentor Observation Calling-On Tool Data ............................................................................ 97 9. PAR Cycle Two Activities and Data .................................................................................... 104 10. PAR Study Data Collection .................................................................................................. 107 11. Demographics of BT Calling On Data.................................................................................. 133 12. Key Activities: Three PAR Cycles of Inquiry ...................................................................... 138 13. Artifacts Collected During Each PAR Cycle ........................................................................ 163 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Fishbone: Assets and challenges ............................................................................................... 6 2. PAR cycle timeline. ................................................................................................................ 17 3. Literature bin: Impact on FoP. ................................................................................................ 21 4. Structure of the CPR. .............................................................................................................. 45 5. Emerging themes. ................................................................................................................... 82 6. Teacher behaviors impact student relationships. .................................................................... 85 7. Instructional practices support student learning. .................................................................... 90 8. Safe environments allow for belonging. ................................................................................. 94 9. Frequency of codes by categories. ........................................................................................ 110 10. Relationship of findings. ....................................................................................................... 114 11. Frequency of codes based on findings. ................................................................................. 116 12. Student teacher relationships. ............................................................................................... 118 13. Frequency of codes for teacher behavior impact student relationship. ................................. 119 14. Frequency of codes across three cycles. ............................................................................... 122 15. Instructional practices support student learning. .................................................................. 124 16. Frequency of codes for instructional practices support student learning. ............................. 126 17. Frequency of codes across three cycles. ............................................................................... 128 18. Safe environments allow for belonging. ............................................................................... 130 19. Frequency of codes for safe environment allow for belonging. ........................................... 131 20. Knowledge, skills, and disposition of mentors. .................................................................... 142 21. Teacher behaviors impact student relationships. .................................................................. 146 22. Instructional practices support student learning. .................................................................. 152 23. Safe environments allow for belonging. ............................................................................... 159 24. Sweet spot. ............................................................................................................................ 168 CHAPTER 1: FOCUS OF PRACTICE The 2019-20 North Carolina Teaching Working Condition (NC TWC) Survey revealed that 46% of Beginning Teachers (BTs) had no formal time to meet with their mentor during school hours. And 30% stated they never met with their mentor to develop lesson plans. The NC TWC is an online, anonymous survey that assesses teachers’ working conditions in key areas. Questions focus on time, facilities, resources, community support and involvement, managing student conduct, teacher leadership, school leadership, professional development, instructional practices and support, and new teacher support. According to Cynthia Martin, the North Carolina Department of Instruction District and Regional Support Director, whose division administers the survey, the survey is a valid and reliable instrument designed to measure educator perceptions about the presence of the teaching and learning conditions that increase teacher learning and retention. Based on the research, these data points show that mentors are not effectively supporting beginning teachers. I identified the skills necessary to provide equitable classroom practices to help mentors support beginning teachers. I designed this Participatory Action Research (PAR) study to examine how mentors develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to support beginning teachers using equitable classroom practices. Research shows that beginning teachers leave the profession due to a lack of support (Kaniuka & Kaniuka, 2019). The attrition rate of teachers is high nationally; mentoring is seen as one means of retaining those who enter the profession (Flores, 2004; Hong, 2010; Ingersoll, 2001). Meetings with a mentor build efficacy and capacity in BTs as they embark upon a professional career in education. As defined by Wellman and Lipton (2017), mentoring moves are strategies or initiatives with a special emphasis on enabling sustainable development of the beginning teacher that requires craftsmanship. In this section, I 2 outline the focus of practice (FoP), my motivation for choosing this practice, and describe the assets and challenges within the context of mentoring. I also share the implications this project may have on beginning teachers (BTs) while adhering to improvement science principles and identify the connection to equity classroom practices. This focus of practice (FoP) examined an issue in school and how those charged with carrying out the work can join together with those they seek to serve to impact change (Bryk et al., 2017) by developing craftsmanship and efficacy through mentoring and coaching conversations. The Focus of Practice The Focus of Practice (FoP) of this Participatory Action Research (PAR) project was to develop mentors' knowledge, skills, and dispositions to identify and implement equitable classroom practices through coaching conversations with beginning teachers. Mentors are school leaders; education research, along with communities of practice, agree that school leadership is centrally important to what happens in schools. Effective school leaders serve as the connective tissue in school reform, ultimately influencing teacher practice and improving student outcomes (Rigby & Tredway, 2015). Mentors initially observed beginning teachers using equitable observation tools and follow up with coaching conversations. Next, all attended a Community Learning Exchange to collaborate and then participate in post-observations starting the 2021-2022 school year. Rationale, Analysis, and Significance of the FoP During this section, I share the rationale of the FoP by beginning with why it is important to me, followed by an analysis of the assets and challenges of the FoP. Next, I share the significance of the FoP and conclude with the connection to equity. 3 With academic discourse and other equitable classroom practices, teachers build relationships and allow students to contribute to the learning process. Too often, teachers are not connecting to the lesson and how it may apply to students. When observing a Kindergarten teacher in a class of predominately Black students, the teacher used the aster as a flower that starts with “a” when no student could give an example. There was no connection with the flower for the children having never seen, touched, or smelled it; nor was there a connection between the teacher and the children in front of them. Aster flowers are not common in the lives of these children or their neighborhoods. She provided no visual and made no application for them. Rationale The 2019-20 NC Teaching Working Condition Survey also shows that 25% of the teachers who leave NC teaching positions are beginning teachers. The main reason they give for leaving is the lack of support. I chose this FoP because mentors support beginning teachers directly. During my beginning years of teaching, the aid of mentors built my confidence and improved my craftsmanship. The support of the mentor eases the adjustment of being a new educator while learning the school climate and nuances of the academic content. Mentors influence what beginning teachers sense about their working conditions. Understanding how teachers perceive the working conditions has immediate and long-term effects on student performance and teacher turnover (Kaniuka & Kaniuka, 2019). As a Co-Director of Equity in Excellence and Leadership, I worked with mentors to set up norms and protocols to improve equitable classroom practices and support through the Beginning Teachers Support Program. To increase equitable learning opportunities for students, equities must be named as a stated purpose of the leadership actions. In the presence of mentors, beginning teachers feel safe and have trusting relationships to engage in conversations about naming the equity. An 4 expectation of educational leaders is to reframe conversations and actions that promote equitable outcomes while navigating against equity traps. Equity traps, or ways of thinking and assumptions, often prevent educators from believing that students of color can be successful learners (McKenzie & Scheurich, 2004). When students are engaged in equitable practices such as academic conversations, they improve language and literacy skills, cognitive ability, and critical thinking skills, both socially and culturally (Zwiers & Crawford, 2011). These conversations, intertwined with what teachers currently do in their classrooms, fortify lesson plans. To explore the Focus of Practice, PAR engages insiders, in this case the Mentors and Beginning Teachers. PAR is a reflective process that is different from traditionally isolated, spontaneous reflection done “to or on them” (Herr & Anderson, 2015). A narrative reflection style is used among the co-practitioner researchers (CPR). PAR allows for interventions that constitute a spiral of action cycles that include a plan of action to improve what is already happening and implementation of revised plans. The cycle was followed by observations of the effects of the actions in the context in which they occur and then reflections on the effects as a basis for further planning. Engaging in research cycles linked the practices that inform the next step of actions (Hunter et al., 2013). FoP Assets and Challenges Community Learning Exchanges break the isolation that people working toward change often feel (Guajardo et al., 2016). To explore thoughts and ideas, a casual CLE occurred in a safe space with time for two beginning teacher district coaches, three school-lead mentors, and four beginning teachers to engage in deep, meaningful conversations about their work. Safety was established at the beginning of our time together by describing transparency and sharing personal 5 stories. This version of the CPR group was able to examine common challenges and assets openly. During our time together, everyone collaborated using protocols to examine the impact of our work together and access to equitable classroom practices such as academic discourse. Visits by the mentors sometimes are quick and hindered by schedules, duties, and availability. During this CLE, the coaches, mentors, and BTs converse together without limits or barriers. Oftentimes, the coaches or mentors are viewed as the possessor of knowledge, while the BT is considered the novice based on lack of experience. During the CLE, an analytical approach was used by creating a fishbone diagram (see Figure 1) to assist with the work of the FoP (Bryk et al., 2017). Being able to map both the assets and challenges of the Beginning Teacher Support Program was an initial step in the inquiry process of change. The assets and challenges managed the group’s thinking about coaching processes, mentoring strategies, and equitable observation while considering the conversation tools to support BTs. The system of improvement in the fishbone diagram looked at three levels: macro, meso, and micro. The macro-level is policies and procedures from North Carolina that governs the Beginning Teacher Support Program. The meso level looks at the Pitt County School Board of Education approved BT Support Plan submitted to the NC Department of Public Instruction (NCDPI) for final approval. At this level, the district supports school-based lead mentors. I interact with this group based on the plan and a signed contract outlining expectations for the support of beginning teachers. The micro-level is at the individual schools. Each school has a program under the guidance of the lead mentor who is in the building daily and collects data on the interaction between the beginning teacher and their assigned mentor. 6 Figure 1. Fishbone: Assets and challenges. 7 Macro Level Assets and Challenges The North Carolina Board of Education Policy TCED-16 was revised September 2020 to include survey information about beginning teachers' experience at their specific Institute of Higher Education (IHE) and addresses the Beginning Teacher Support Program (BTSP). The primary and direct goal of the BTSP is to help new teachers improve their skills and build confidence to become successful educators. According to the policy, BTs only reach their fullest potential with support systems from the state, school district, local school, and quality mentors. North Carolina’s program includes these components to provide a systematic structure of support for beginning teachers. An asset to this policy is the state-assigned Regional Education Facilitator (REF), who may assist with the required three-day orientation of BTs within each district and offer training to become mentors. Every mentor in the state must complete face-to- face training or online modules of 21st Century Mentor Training to work with beginning teachers. NC published a handbook for mentors that explains the five mentoring standards and the mentoring continuum in addition to the training. Each standard contains elements along with examples of support for beginning teachers. The REF conducts an audit every five years of each Local Education Agency (LEA) within its region. Other Beginning Teacher Support Coordinators assist with the process, which includes monitoring for a timely evaluation or observations through the NC Educator Effectiveness System (NCEES), which is the evaluation instrument for all NC teachers, the assignment of a trained mentor, and evidence that the mentor and BT met regularly. It does not account for the amount or type of support given by the mentor. And because the team of auditors varies by district, the standard is not always consistent, which is a challenge. 8 Meso Level Assets and Challenges Pitt County Schools has included the Beginning Teacher Support Program in the strategic plan for the district. According to the plan, Lead Mentors complete a monthly reflection log and a monthly meeting with all beginning teachers. The logs reflect 90% participation of mentors supporting BTs through individual sessions. The strategic plan also reflects that mentors designated as leads complete research-based training beyond the NCDPI requirements by the second year of their annual contract. These mentors complete a contract that outlines expectations and are approved by their principal to serve in the leadership role. This allows relational trust to be built, and they can provide resources and opportunities to support beginning teachers. Beginning teachers are observed by peers other than their BT mentor. This observation uses the NCESS instrument and does not include equitable observation by their mentor or district support. Beginning teachers do not have academic conversations about the use of discourse in their classes or other equitable practices. As a district, there is little training concerning equity and culturally relevant lesson planning. Not being given professional learning on using academic discourse or other equitable tools and the lack of training on equitable and culturally relevant lesson plans present challenges to beginning teachers’ ability to build relationships with students which promote academic success. Micro Level Assets and Challenges Every school in the district with at least one beginning teacher has a support program and mentor who receives a monthly stipend that coincides with the number of BTs in the building. Every BT is assigned a BT mentor who may be in their alike grade or content area. Each month, Lead Mentors typically coordinate and often facilitate teacher talks, as outlined by state policy. 9 These meetings allow for training, fellowship, and Q&A specific to the school or district. Meetings can also be facilitated by Beginning Teachers who wish to take on a leadership role. Relevant topics to the BTs, content, school or district issues, or concerns bought to the attention of the Lead Mentor are discussed and the meetings are held on or off campus. During the CLE, both beginning teachers and mentors agreed that BTs are supported with self-care, care of students, learning of themselves and students, and classroom management during their interactions. Because the lead mentor and topics conducted by the teacher talks are discussed, the depth and breadth vary from school to school. Another challenge shared by one of the beginning teachers is that classes fall along racial and socio-economic demographics. Wilkerson (2020) describes this as caste or ranking. According to her, caste is the boundaries that reinforce fixed assignments based on what people look like. Throughout the discussion, both experienced mentor teachers and novice beginning teachers shared that they lack time to develop student relationships to help deliver more personalized lessons or to create environments where students freely engage in conversations or discourse to help teachers become more aware of student thinking (metacognition) and background because learning is cultural. When students express their thought processes to their peers, this gives the teacher an authentic look at ideas and values that drive or motivate student learning. However, none of the teachers shared ideas about any type of equitable practices, including academic discourse to build student independence in facilitating learning or building relationships. This deficit, along with the idea of classes based on a caste system, encourages the need for an FoP to examine current practices for change. Through the information gained in the CLE and the fishbone model, I, along with the CPR group, will offer solutions to address how we can provide support to beginning teachers to employ knowledge, skills, and dispositions to improve how mentors provide equitable practices. 10 The model's information transforms how mentors have effective conversations, use various coaching stances, and implement observation tools to support beginning teachers. The fishbone illustration shown in Figure 1 is an adoption and adaptation of the work done by Bryk et al. (2017). It is modified to show assets and challenges to offer the context of how the Beginning Teacher Support Program currently supports BTs. The previous sections detailed how these assets and challenges may influence the PAR's work and outcomes related to supporting beginning teachers. The following section shares the significance of the project. Significance of the FoP The significance of developing the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of mentors to support beginning teachers in identifying and using equitable classroom practices has far- reaching impact. Based on historical reform, legislation in education, and student achievement, there is a deep divide between schools' aspirations and the acceleration of schools. As government and laws move forward, there is a push for all students to advance and accomplish deeper learning with fewer resources (Theoharis, 2010). While schools decide to make quick implementations and then come back later to work on problems, mentors lose opportunities to support beginning teachers. North Carolina allows for 180 days per school year and even less than that to influence children's academic outcomes with testing requirements before the end of the year. So, the strategy of implementing a quick fix later does not work in education. “Change in a complex work system means recognizing that one cannot predict ahead of time all the details that need work nor the unintended negative consequences that might also ensue” (Theoharis, 2010, p. 7). Improvement science uses the results of change to guide the development, revision, and continued fine-tuning of new tools, processes, work roles, and relationships. This study involved equitable observation tools, including academic discourse, coaching stances, and 11 mentoring coaching conversations between mentors and beginning teachers. By addressing deficits, mentors supported the development of the beginning teachers’ craftsmanship which also impact the use of equitable tools. This also built the capacity of schools to produce reliable outcomes for various subgroups. Context In Pitt County, as in other districts across the nation, subgroups of students of color are outperformed by their white peers. The idea is to change the traditional language and observations to create better guidance from mentors for novice teachers and improve the work practices to make schools more effective. How schools perform is directly related to the interactions, tools, materials available, and processes that bring people and resources together. Mentors and beginning teachers (BTs) met periodically each month. Most of these meetings are informal. However, changing the purpose of the meeting and being intentional help BTs become more effective. Reliable routines produced quality executions of complex tasks. Addressing organizational complexity requires solving problems of coordination, communication, and system sensing (Bryk et al., 2017). As a district, meeting times are established and through the FoP, we examine communication, and as a district, we sense the needs of beginning teachers. Significance to Practice This FoP extended beyond the one-time training that is currently required for mentors to support beginning teachers. The shift impacted mentor practices and interactions with beginning teachers and how BTs receive support. The move from using the traditional instrument to observe all teachers for evaluation to developing the knowledge, skills, and disposition of mentors to conduct observations that are non-punitive and related to support and equitable practices. 12 Significance to Policy This FoP has several implications for both state and local policies related to mentor support. Beginning with mentor coaching conversations, mentors build trust and rapport to support BTs. These conversations move from the mentor telling and the BT doing to dialogue around equitable classroom practices and observations. The implication of the research has the potential to add tools and protocols to coaching and mentoring programs to increase their effectiveness on beginning teachers, mentoring meetings, and teacher attrition. Significance to Research Mentors provided direct support and played a vital role in helping BTs build efficacy and develop craftsmanship. With the increasing demand for student performance and the increase in attrition, teacher support is imperative. This FoP played a critical role in educational research. It discovered how mentors develop the knowledge, skills, and disposition to provide access to equitable classroom practices. Additionally, the study contributed to the equity-based coaching between mentors and beginning teachers. Lastly, the research focused on the role of mentors, their practices, and their interactions with beginning teachers. What do we know about the BTs and equitable delivery of pedagogy? How do we know what support from the mentor works for them? This FoP aims to answer these questions by developing the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of mentors to support beginning teachers in identifying and using equitable classroom practices. FoP Connection to Equity Philosophical and sociological equity frameworks are most relevant to this Focus of Practice. Initially, a review of the philosophical framework of discourse was conducted, specifically on changing discourse in schools, based on Eubanks et al. (1997). Then, an 13 investigation of how the caste’s sociological framework perpetuates a system of inequity among teaching staff. Then, based on the work of Rigby and Tredway (2015), the study focused on building the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of the mentors to identify and use to equitable classroom practices. How teachers talk to each other or share discourse should provide constructive dialogue to positively impact the delivery of instruction and student learning. These conversations are expected to grow and develop as the veteran mentor teacher coaches the BTs. Even with attempts to identify and discuss fundamental issues, serious barriers occur (Eubanks et al., 1997). These barriers can be linked to existing cultural patterns, which may be a part of micro-aggressions, hidden biases, stereotypes, and deficit perspectives. These all prevent discourse that may provide meditative thinking and confidence in decision-making. Problems continue to exist as long as symptoms are treated as causes. To effectively cause change that persists, discourse conversations that may be uncomfortable must occur about inequities, prejudicial conditions, and school relationships. This includes identifying and addressing equity traps that teachers may be drawn to concerning student learning. Equity traps avert teachers from believing in the success of students of color (McKenzie & Scheurich, 2004). The quality of education may be determined based on geography and the resources given to schools and students in that demographic area. “Reform” measures have the effect of maintaining the schooling advantage for the privileged in the name of choice, freedom, standards, and the American way (Eubanks et al., 1997). Schooling has become educationalized to address social problems. Education has taken on the responsibility to solve social problems while seeking more formal than substantive solutions (Labaree, 2008). When seen as a social problem, racial prejudice can be educationalized by instituting programs for underserved or “at 14 risk” students. However, the caste system has an embedded ranking of human value that has already made one group superior over all others (Wilkerson, 2020). The hierarchy of caste is not about feelings or morality. It is about power – which groups have it and which do not. It is about respect, authority, and assumptions of competence – who is afforded these and who is not (Wilkerson, 2020). Throughout education, as in other professions, caste has been an invisible factor that governs policies and adherence to them that sustains the system. Teachers are often ranked based on their schools or the demographics of the students they teach. Though schools are desegregated, attendance areas and student populations’ access to resources may still be limited based on the hierarchy of neighborhoods. As a district, there is a responsibility to provide equitable resources to all. In the next section, the Participatory Action Research Design, I share the Purpose Statement and Research Questions. The Theory of Action is explained next, followed by the FoP Description. The section concludes with Proposed Project Activities. Participatory Action Research Design PAR is an inquiry done by or with insiders to the organization or community experiencing the Focus of Practice (Herr & Anderson, 2015). PAR seeks to maintain an idea of participation and collaboration while upholding the concepts of activism, social justice, and transformation of theory and practice. Unlike traditional research, where the researcher extracts information in a one-way flow, PAR works with the community. The community finds answers and then applies those answers to the focus of practice (Hunter et al., 2013). The PAR process helped me determine how mentors gained the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to identify and use equitable classroom practices. Specifically, I learn from focusing on the following research questions. 15 Research Questions The overarching research question for this PAR study is What knowledge, skills, and dispositions do mentors need to support beginning teachers in implementing equitable classroom practices through coaching conversations?The following research subquestions will be explored during the FoP: 1. To what extent do mentors develop the knowledge, skills, and disposition to support beginning teachers in identifying equitable practices? 2. To what extent do mentors implement coaching conversations with beginning teachers to support equitable classroom practices? 3. How does working with mentors support my growth and development as an educational leader? Theory of Action Having previously served as a mentor and now as the coordinator for the district’s BT Support program, I witnessed the need for this FoP to furnish mentors with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to identify and use equitable classroom practices. The theory of action is: IF mentors develop knowledge, skills, and dispositions, THEN mentors will coach beginning teachers to use equitable classroom practices. Project Activities The FoP is to know the knowledge, skills, and dispositions mentors need to identify and use equitable classroom practices. The cycle began with questions related to observations and evaluations, which are crucial to improving beginning teachers’ practices. The process entails clarifying the actions of participants and why and to what extent they affect equitable discourse in classrooms. Then as a Co-Practitioner Research (CPR) group, we learned through reflecting 16 on the actions. The focus was on the behaviors and the directions taken without bogging down the process. As a CPR group, we considered actions and inquiries that foster skills, clarity, and learning. This helped crystalize new beliefs that will we put into practice. The PAR project occurred in two schools in the Pitt County School System at the elementary grade spans. Mentors and beginning teachers from the two selected schools formed the CPR and I served as the lead researcher. The unit of analysis for the PAR study was the mentors. There were three PAR cycles that included planning, actions, and reflection/evaluation, as outlined in Figure 2. In the first cycle, the CPR planned and received training around coaching and equitable observation tools. This allows mentors to learn about non-evaluative ways to observe teachers beyond the state NCEES instrument. A specific observation strategy, the Calling-On Tool, used Academic Discourse practices. The second involved the interactions of mentors and their classrooms. I observed mentors and had coaching conversations about the data from using the Calling-On Tool. The purpose was to gauge normal practices that typically occur in their classroom using equitable practices and modeling coaching conversations. A Community Learning Exchange (CLE) followed to engage in the impact of equitable practices such as calling on students and academic discourse. The third cycle involved mentors observing the beginning teacher’s use of the Calling-On Tool and coaching around the data from the Calling-On Tool followed by me conducting a meta-coaching of the mentor. An initial CLE reflected on the practice, compared it to the first observation, and examined how it may have changed after the CLE. Lastly, during a second CLE, the CPR group evaluated how the process impacted them and the Beginning Teacher. 17 Figure 2. PAR cycle timeline. 18 Confidentiality, Ethical Considerations and Limitations Maintaining confidentiality and ethical considerations were essential to this project, considering it is being conducted concurrently with educators who are practitioners in the district. I received IRB approval to conduct the study (see Appendix A), completed the CITI certification (see Appendix B) before starting this research, as well as gained approval from my district to conduct this research (see Appendix C). It was also equally important to be transparent about the limitation of the results. Adults voluntarily participated in this project. Individually, I meet with participants to invite them to participate and explain how their identity will be protected. Upon agreeing to participate, they signed a consent form (see Appendix D) to safeguard the identity of participants. Maintaining and ensuring the security of data collection was vital during the research. More details describing the process of confidentiality is detailed in Chapter 3. I am the Co-Director of Equity in Excellence and Leadership for Pitt County Schools, where this research occurred. Both district and school employees were participants. It was imperative that I was aware of ethical considerations and address them, both as lead research and as Co-Director. Participants gave informed consent to participate without any sense of obligation or coercion. Additionally, termination of consent did not occur at any time during the study. Before completion of the study, participants reviewed the data and findings to confirm that I correctly captured their thoughts and ideas, as well as the accuracy of the work. Lastly, this small PAR study takes place in two elementary schools in a district of 38 schools. Due to the restriction of the scope and size of the study, the findings and outcomes cannot be generalized to another context. More detailed information regarding confidentiality, ethical consideration, and limitations is provided in Chapter 3. 19 Summary Mentors support beginning teachers and meet with them more often than administrators, who may only visit once a quarter. Beginning teachers enter the profession needing support in the areas of transitioning from college students to supervising diverse students, learning content, and implementing pedagogical skills. Veteran teachers have experienced all these milestones and serve a vital component in mentoring BTs before they leave teaching careers. Mentors must coach beginning teachers to use equitable classroom practices to improve student performance. Pitt County Schools have an established program in place to inquire how mentors develop the skills, knowledge, and dispositions needed to provide equitable access. Educator preparedness programs do not address the concerns of equitable practices that leave gaps in the readiness of beginning teachers. I designed this qualitative PAR study to specifically research know what knowledge, skills, and dispositions mentors need to support equitable practices, in beginning teachers’ classrooms. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW “Whoever teaches learns in the act of teaching, and whoever learns teaches in the act of learning.” ~ Paulo Freire Education is experiencing a significant desolation of teachers and teacher attrition, also known as turnover (Flores, 2004; Hong, 2010; Ingersoll, 2001). This phenomenon has substantially impacted schools and requires administrators constantly to find newly qualified staff. Often, these new hires are beginning teachers, also referred to as new or novice teachers in the existing research and literature, entering the profession with less than five years of teaching experience. For the purpose of this research, the term beginning teachers (BTs) is used. This research examined practices and supports of beginning teachers including mentoring and the impact on equitable practices in the classrooms of the beginning teachers. While there has been a plethora of research on the facets of beginning teachers, this literature review focuses on three main categories: Beginning Teachers, Mentor Support for Beginning Teachers, and Equitable Classroom Practices. Each of these main categories is broken down into sub-categories. The Beginning Teacher’s sub-categories are Teacher Shortage, Teacher Induction, and Teacher Support. The sub-categories for Mentor Support for Beginning Teachers are Mentoring Professional Development, Mentoring Relationships, and Mentoring Conversations. Lastly, the literature review for the topic of Equitable Classroom Practices includes the sub-categories of Learning Theory and Culture, Rigorous Task and Academic Discourse, and School Leadership That Supports Academic Discourse. This is illustrated in the Literature Bin: Impact on FoP shown in Figure 3. 21 Figure 3. Literature bin: Impact on FoP. 22 Beginning Teachers With the legislation of No Child Left Behind, both state and local school districts mandated that teachers solely focus on achievement, which shifted the focus to curriculum that would improve or raise test scores. As beginning teachers enter education, their highest priority is to survive the first year as they transition from a college student or from a previous profession into their new identity. In a survey by Mandel, 50 beginning teachers reported the concerns for the first year included setting up the classroom and getting prepared for school opening, covering curriculum without losing student interest, maintain content pacing guides along with their peers, fair grading practices, and dealing with parents. They also wanted to know how to maintain good mental health (Mandel, 2006). While some EPPs cover many of these topics, too often teachers are finding themselves overwhelmed with being tossed into the newness of the profession without knowing where to find answers. This can cause teachers to move on to other schools or districts that provide the support for finding these answers or to leave the profession altogether within the first five years (Schmidt, 2017). The literature begins by sharing research on teacher retention and shortage or turnover. Next the focus will be on teacher induction programs for beginning teachers and conclude with beginning teacher supports. Teacher Shortage Data of beginning teachers in the United States from 1999-2000 compared the retention of 3,235 teachers that did or did not participate in various induction activities. The study revealed that 29% of these beginning teachers left the profession. Using the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), research revealed beginning teachers who were supported by mentors and collaborated with colleagues were more likely to stay after their first year (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). As a supplement, the Teacher Follow-up 23 Survey (TFS) was also used. Each cycle of the survey was a random sample of schools, arranged by state, public or private sector, and school level, and contained questions linked to the administration for random teachers. After leaving the school, former teachers were asked to complete another questionnaire 12 months later (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Some contributing factors to turnover are school climate and culture along with inadequate administrative support and the beginning teacher’s limited ability to contribute input on school-based decisions (Flores, 2004). Research by Ingersoll suggests that the imbalance of teacher supply to demand is also related to the excess demand, available organizational resources, and lack of support (Ingersoll, 2001). There is an identity shift for beginning teachers from being college students leaving educational preparedness programs (EPP) to taking on the identity of instructional or classroom leader. The reality of teaching does not always align with the idealistic perceptions formed during the pre-service or college internship experience, according to a mixed-methods study conducted by Hong (2010) that included 84 participant surveys and 27 interviews. Lack of confidence in their self-efficacy to deliver instruction and understand content were contributing factors among teachers that were interviewed in the study who left the profession. This becomes increasingly true for teachers who enter education with alternative licenses or degrees in content areas other than education. Beginning Teacher Induction Teacher induction programs vary by state yet typically serve the same purpose of developing beginning teachers with the goal of retaining them in the district and providing additional support as both a professional and a novice educator. Induction can reduce isolation by introducing the beginning teacher to fellow beginning teachers, school staff, and administration, along with mentors with the aim is to increase job satisfaction. Research from 24 across five countries, Switzerland, Japan, France, New Zealand, and China (Shanghai), all share a common thread about beginning teacher induction. Although varied in approach, they were all highly structured, focused on professional learning, and emphasized collaboration (Wong et al., 2005). Induction typically begins with an initial meeting a few days before the school year starts and continues through multiple years in order to acclimate beginning teachers to academic standards along with the vision of school district. Though varied by schools or district, a common approach to induction is to include an opportunity to network and build support and leadership within a learning community, strong administrative support, and professional development over the course of two or three years. Induction programs integrate a component of mentoring into the process while modeling effective teaching practices (Katz et al., 2011). The purpose is to treat beginning teachers as valuable contributors and hold them accountable for individual learning while making the entire learning community responsible for gaining knowledge to deliver quality instruction. The Lafourche Parish Public School in Thibodaux, Louisiana, with an enviable attrition rate of only 3.9% over four years, implemented these components and became the model of induction programs for school districts in the entire state of Louisiana. Other school districts with strong inductions programs include the Islip Public School District in New York and the Leyden High School District in Illinois, both with 4.4% turnover rates (Wong, 2004). Because belonging is a basic human need, induction programs provide a connection to veteran teachers that prepare them for the rigor of the classroom through a sustained intensive structure. In a study of New Jersey beginning teachers who participated in an induction, they acknowledge sharing a strong commitment to improving and commitment to the profession. The 25 most significant contributing factor that led to job satisfaction beyond the induction was the support of the principal (Katz et al., 2011) Beginning Teacher Support Although beginning teachers are tasked with the same goal as veteran teachers – to close the achievement gap and achieve student success – they often lack the tools and skills to accomplish this, especially for students of color. Through education preparedness programs, many teachers learn best practices and strategies to implement a predominately white curriculum. Upon graduating, new teachers are less familiar with culturally responsive teaching practices and how to infuse them into their lessons. Research from Septor (2019) shows that, upon entering the teaching field, professional development shapes a teacher’s understanding of competency and how students learn in an environment that reflects their own experiences. In international settings, there is a lack of courses during the pre-service or as part of preparation programs that address equity and diversity. In response, to address the need for globalization, a local qualitative study was conducted using data from an experienced, accomplished multi-cultural teacher’s US-based practices. The research showed that beginning teachers benefit from acknowledging with appreciation and learning from students with diverse backgrounds through engaging in autobiographical reflection. This was especially important as it recognized the disparities in academic success among different demographic groups in America. Most learners today have a goal of becoming 21st century prepared, which is universal throughout all countries. Research in New Zealand, Australia, and Canada all support that teachers in their pre-service training benefit from reflective discourse with local communities to support diverse learners. This led to a “glocal” view of diversity and equity in teacher development. According to SciDev.Net, glocal as an adjective means reflecting on or 26 characterized by both local and global considerations. It may also mean using or applying global knowledge to local content. As part of the support beginning teachers receive, professional development, is needed to support how they navigate complex personal and societal spaces while learning to teach content that offers less biases toward race, gender, culture, class, or disability (Liu & Milman, 2014). Mentoring Beginning Teachers Much of what coaching and mentoring is about involves support through modeling, discussion, and reflection. This requires both teaching and learning on the part of the mentor and the beginning teacher, which impacts working conditions for both. In the 2019 NCDPI report, beginning teachers account for over 25% of all attrition; it is argued that understanding how working conditions affect attrition is of critical importance in North Carolina. Based on research from Kaniuka and Kaniuka (2019), TWC survey conditions decline, or at least are perceived not to be supportive, resulting in teachers leaving for schools where they feel they may be more successful based on receiving greater administrative support, improved relationships, and collaboration with peers (mentoring relationships), along with safer schools and empowerment. While mentors assist with career provision such as salary and career advancement, they also provide the BT with psychological safety based on the value they place on the relationship with the mentor, which requires establishing relational trust. Research supports that professional learning helps the mentor know the expectations of their duties and gives them the benefit of a systemic and focused education about the role (Kyle et al., 1999). Teaching, when presented as an art form by a mentor, shapes the choices and decisions of novice teachers. Ideas and pedagogy shared by mentors inspire and engage beginning teachers to learn pedagogy and strategies that are not taught during pre-service. In this section, I explore 27 how mentoring and coaching support beginning teachers. First, I share research on the effects of mentoring relationships, then look at mentoring through professional development. I conclude by sharing the impact of mentoring conversations and reflection. Professional Development For Mentoring Professional Development for mentoring BTs begins during induction. According to Soloman, attributes of the mentor who took on the identity of a servant leader led to BTs who were more productive in exhibiting growth and development (p. 138). From this study, professional development for the mentor should include training based on ten attributes including listening, empathy, healing, stewardship, awareness, foresight, persuasion, conceptualization, growing others, and building community (Greenleaf et al., 2002). Mentors who experience success with BTs offer general support, practical and pedagogical support, as well as personal support. Professional development that supports the mentors’ learning aids them in supporting and offering instruction to beginning teachers. The training for the mentors should be comprehensive and cover a variety of strategies that not only benefit the mentor but also the BT, the students, and the school. The five areas where beginning teachers perceived to be supported were emotional support, pedagogical support, planning/collaboration, the gift of time, and advice (Gilles et al., 2013). Based on the reciprocal relationship between the retention of BTs, BT growth and development, and student success, the professional development of mentors need to emphasize the role and responsibilities of both the mentor and mentee. Research findings suggest that among ways of communication, the training should promote a mutual relationship of respect and trust between the mentor and mentee. Trainings should include means of having positive 28 interaction between both mentor and mentee and development activities such as format, timing, frequency, and duration for blended learning systems (Denton & Heiney-Smith, 2019) Effective Mentoring Relationships Most mentors conduct some form of coaching. Coaching involves engaging in conversations or partnerships that are thought-provoking and create the process of thinking in the coachee to maximize their potential. Coaching sessions typically involve questions to mediate thinking based on performance and may occur periodically. The purpose of the questions is to help the coachee to make important decisions, recognize behavioral changes, and act. Notable outcomes for a coaching session are specific and measurable goals, tangible signs of improvement, or positive change related to performance. For the purpose of interactions with BTs, this study looked at the relationship of mentors and mentoring. Mentors, in this study’s context, have a long-term relationship with beginning teachers. Mentoring requires a holistic approach to career development by helping BTs with content knowledge, pedagogy, student management, and other tenets of education. When mentoring is developmental driven, BTs are encouraged to look beyond their current position and focus on leadership or a shift toward advanced teaching roles. In the mentoring relationship, the mentor is considered the expert, so the BT tends to ask more questions. Goals and meetings may be informal based on the need or request of the BT (Zust, 2021). The relationship may cause the role of the mentor to shift on a continuum from calibrator to consultant to coach and then to collaborator. On the calibration end of the continuum, information and analysis are high and decrease as the mentor becomes a collaborator with the BT (Lipton & Wellman, 2018). Mentoring can be defined as a growth-enhancing practice that supports human development (Drago-Severson, 2009). Mentors have been referred to as growth agents (Lipton & 29 Wellman, 2018) who bring a wealth of knowledge and experience to guide BTs in becoming independent thinkers who can make decisions based on their own understanding and knowledge. As a developmental practice, mentoring supports the individual growth of adults to become leaders in their career. Beginning teachers supported by trained mentors earlier in the year show increased evidence of developing and sustaining more workable classroom routines, managing instruction more smoothly, and gaining student cooperation in academic tasks more effectively. Students also demonstrated less inappropriate or disruptive behaviors and seemed to have more initial success in schoolwork. Research concluded that not only the presence of the mentor, but the training of the mentor contributed to the growth and development of the novice teacher (Evertson & Smithey, 2000). Effective mentoring relationships involve open communication, decrease isolation, and build interdependent relationships which help BTs manage change while supporting their growth. This requires a significant amount of time and energy on the part of the mentor. Ongoing training is important so that mentors become skilled at providing instructional support through observations, the use of data to inform team planning and delivery of instruction, and the use of instructional strategies through collegial dialogue aimed at enhancing both student and teacher performance (Drago-Severson, 2009). Mentoring Conversations Mentoring conversations are highly structured and unfold in the time and space of activities. The evidence-based conversations are centered around pedagogy, collaboration, dialogic, and can be analytical. When engaging in mentoring conversations, beginning teachers, 30 as well as those completing the preservice requirements, are able to build a strong practice theory based on classroom exchanges with students, they either observe, experience, or critique. Conversations that are most effective between the mentor and BT are dialogues based on evidence. The evidence may be disseminated as a third point of communication that is neutral. In this way, the data is visually represented and shifts the rational cognition and emotions away from the relationship of the mentor/mentee into the attention of the items or artifacts. When the data is held to the side and not by anyone, a psychologically safe place is provided to share information, concerns, and possible problems (Lipton & Wellman, 2018). When employing dialogical conversations in a safe place, strengths and weaknesses may be shared along with underlying assumptions about the teaching practices. Being that the mentor is the expert, advice may be shared along with reasoning and inquiries about implementation (Edwards-Groves, 2014). Mentors are to provide an intersubjective means of understanding how educational practices take place. Effective mentoring relationships help beginning teachers manage new challenges and develop teaching practices through reflective activities and professional conversations. When conversations occur in the moment or during the happenings, strong theory practices connections are made by the BT. Language provides the perspective of socio-political context that helps build the relationship between the mentor and mentee. During the conversation, it is important that, within the language, the mentor uses verbal tools such as pausing, paraphrasing, and posing questions to create an interactive process that energizes both mentor and mentor. The mentee should feel a sense of creativity to think, feel nourished by the new ideas, and consider their growth and development. The ultimate goal is that the language and thinking build capacity in the beginning teacher. 31 As the novice BTs grow professionally, the mentor facilitates a professional vision. Mentors do turn BTs from novice to expert in a matter of days or weeks around specific topics. Mentors continue to provide support as the BT continues to learn and manage disequilibrium about new questions and novel ideas. Effective mentors continually balance the support by providing appropriate cognitive challenges for growth in the moments of opportunity. At the intersection of attitude and aptitude where the varying ability of BTs differ, it is important for mentors to differentiate the support based on where the BT is at that moment (Lipton & Wellman, 2018). Equitable Classroom Practices A qualitative study of seven beginning teachers over a period of six-18 months looked at their perceptions of diversity. While having received training that broadened their knowledge and the implications of diversity, there was still difficulty in implementation. Established pedagogical practices within their schools provided the beginning teacher with an understanding of responsiveness to a learner’s diverse needs. This study was conducted in New Zealand, and placed emphasis on the continuing professional support that beginning teachers need beyond their pre-service training, especially when there are no requirements for program completion or graduation. It would be impractical for school leaders to believe that beginning teachers would challenge established practices that are a part of the school’s climate and culture (Dharan, 2014). This section of the literature review begins with learning theory and culture that support cognitive challenges for equitable classroom practices and helps students engage in information processing. Then, I examined research that shows the benefits of student-centered tasks accompanied by academic discourse. Lastly, I explored research where school leaders support 32 cultural linguistic responsive pedagogy (CLRP). The research reflects that implementing reform that promotes student engagement in academic discourse builds spaces for student learning. Learning Theory and Culture Children’s initial understanding of the world is based on the environment and systems within their culture. Once they begin schooling, that learning is influenced by the culture of cognitive demand. The process of discovery through problem-solving contributes to intellect which leads to cognitive growth. “Intelligence is to a great extent the internalization of “tools” provided by a given culture” (Bruner, 1986, p. 67). Because of the unique demands of various cultures, the members of that particular society make meaning in different ways. The way in which they choose to negotiate knowledge or use tools is based on their previous learning or how they make meaning. Learning that occurs in a communal setting helps students identify with those of similar cultures, while helping them to make meaning for themselves and the community. The use of language common to the student’s culture creates an opportunity for knowledge to be transmitted and for reflection. Allowing for the metacognition of information goes beyond creating and acquiring knowledge; it leads to learning where students see both themselves and others (Bruner, 1986). This study revealed that as teachers engaged in the culture and beliefs of the students, the students gained academic success, cultural competency, and critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Traditionally, the skill of implementing literacy was a means to understand, navigate, and improve society. Based on the proficiency to articulate reading, writing, and communication abilities, identities and the ability to be critical thinkers were developed. Historically, for people of color and those who have been marginalized, the idea of making sense of text became their identity. Skills for them were based on developing proficiency in their learning. Becoming 33 smart(er) about what they knew or gaining new knowledge was defined as intellect and the ability to understand power, authority, and oppression is criticality. Because of white centering in public education, it becomes a necessary facet of pedagogy to include criticality as a means of seeing, naming, and questioning injustice and working toward social transformation. These four terms – identity, intellect, skill, and criticality – are the foundation for four-layered approaches to educational equity (Muhammad, 2018). Being mindful of this framework and including it within the curriculum engages the student in culturally responsive lessons that include their culture and humanizes the information. This aligns with the findings of Ladson-Billings (1995), who studied eight exemplary teachers of African American students, which serves as an investigative site in which culturally relevant pedagogical practices were observed and reflected upon. Three notable intentions emerged in her research – the concept of self and others, social relationships, and the concept of knowledge. When addressing the concept of self and others, these teachers focused on their own identity and shortfalls that may hinder student success. Negative stereotypes or labels that could have been imposed upon the students based on race or socioeconomics were not spoken. The teachers did express a high level of expectations and success for students while honoring their community as a source of pride and culture. Social relationships were identified by the reciprocal respect shown in student-teacher relationships and the connections teachers made with each student. Teachers developed a community of learners that engaged in collaborative learning and held each other accountable. Students were encouraged to share information without the stigma of being a teacher’s pet or risk being ostracized for being knowledgeable. This diminished the idea of competition and honored the whole group success. The concept of knowledge as identified by these eight teachers, reveals that knowledge is to be shared, recycled, and constructed with a critical view. It was their belief that 34 through their own passions for knowledge and learning, teachers must scaffold instruction to facilitate learning for students. Student learning can be demonstrated by multiple forms that demonstrate mastery and understanding of content. This study revealed that as teachers engaged in the culture and beliefs of the students, the students gained academic success, cultural competency, and critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Enacting cultural connectedness through embracing the traditional heritage language and practices build sustaining pedagogies that allow for a pluralistic society (Paris, 2012). According to Hammond (2015), culture guides how we process information. The brain is hardwired to be social. This looks different in various cultures. In order to engage students, it is important to determine if their dominant culture is collectivistic or individualistic. Many students of color come from a collectivistic society where value is placed on relationships, interdependence within the community, and cooperative learning. Practices may vary from culture to culture or be expressed in numerous ways. Individualistic societies, such as those in European cultures, heavily stress individual achievement, self-reliance, and independence. Hammond (2015) also shares that students whose culture is collectivist are collaborative learners while learners from individualist cultures tend to compete even against themselves. Information processing involves cognitive routines that students experience in their daily lives. Culturally and linguistically responsive information processing comes from oral traditions such as storytelling, songs, repetitious chants, or dialogue. According to Hammond (2015), there are three stages in information processing. During the first stage, input, students’ attention is captured, and the brain decides if it wants to pay attention. Here the use of oral traditions to deliver content helps students tap into their funds of knowledge and make connections to prepare for new learning. The second stage is elaboration. This is where information moves from short- 35 term working memory to long term and students become knowledgeable instead of regurgitating facts. During this stage, movement or music can help the brain process and make connection. Dialogue or tasks that involve collaboration can be embedded here as well. It is also important to make sure the information is scaffolded, so that processing occurs in small chunks, allowing time for the information to settle in students’ brains. The last stage is application. Students are given the opportunity to construct meaning of the new learning through practice, life application, or taking a call to action. Cognitive challenges through the cycles provides the brain the opportunity to stretch and expand while providing an opportunity to engage in more complex thinking and learning. Tasks and Academic Discourse Tasks are instructional or assessment-related assignments that intellectually engage students. They are specifically designed to dedicate class time to the development and assessment of disciplinary ideas or practice. As students learn and process information, they need time to think about the learning through assigned tasks. This also provides an opportunity for students to make meaning and problem-solve using background knowledge and lived experiences from their culture. Tasks are not only assessments that measure proficiency; they are meaningful ways to capture students’ understanding of curriculum and instruction. They provide balance between the teacher’s direct instruction and student-centered learning. Students’ thinking is revealed through task and provides data on what types of support are needed to address any misconceptions or lack of understanding (Tekkumru-Kisa et al., 2020). When students are given a task with high-level demands it involves cognitive effort and complex thinking. Relevant knowledge and experience help students explore and understand the nature of the content. When given cognitively demanding tasks, that also allow for academic 36 discourse, students perform at higher levels. Students perceive a greater opportunity to learn when high cognitive tasks are used throughout the delivery of the lesson. They embrace the struggle and enjoy the challenge as it allowed them to express their own ideas. The teacher’s selection of the type of task should be intentional and equitable to provide access to rich disciplinary experiences for all students (Hiebert & Wearne, 1993). High cognitive demand tasks also impact classroom management. Three high school and one middle school beginning teachers participated in a study of academic tasks and classroom management. These teachers were considered highly qualified based on their completion of a five-year program for mathematically talented individuals who are new to teaching. All received competitive scores on the ETS Praxis II Math Content exam and had a strong understanding of math content. When considering classroom management, the focus areas were student engagement and teacher awareness of classroom behaviors; instructional management such as planning, delivery of lessons, assessments, rules, and procedures; and classroom setup, such as ease of movement for both students and teachers as a framework for standards-based instruction. Based on the research, teachers had better or positive outcomes with classroom management when they anticipated responses to a high cognitive task or misconceptions about the material, delivered well written lesson plans that addressed instructional management including rules and procedures, and spatial organization through the setup and implementation phases. Teachers who were able to redirect a single student or small group back on task had more time for instruction and students had more time for engagement of high-cognitive tasks (Barriteau Phaire, 2012). Research is clear that the use of equitable academic discourse assists in closing the opportunity gap for achievement (McKenzie & Scheurich, 2004). By implementing strategies to increase academic discourse, the language and thinking of the students become visible as they 37 respond to questions from both the teacher and peers. Academic discourse allows students to bring their experiences along with their cultural and social identities into conversations about content without having a deficit perspective (Paris, 2012). Instructional tasks and classroom discourse relate to the relationship between teaching and learning (Hiebert & Wearne, 1993). When students are allowed time to engage in meaningful discourse, they problem-solve and create alternate solutions or strategies. When students are given the opportunity to engage in this type of cognitive process it allows for reflection along with both group and individual creativity. It is important for teachers to design academic tasks that require both thinking and language patterns that reflect the nature of communication based on students’ cultural understanding. Academic skills are developed as students engage in content through their own cultural experiences to learn and communicate. For the teacher, it places the focus on content as well as the social identity and intelligence of the student. Because students come from diverse communities where language may be used differently than at school, giving them the opportunity to engage in academic discourse allows them to communicate in conversations that also includes terms related to the content. This may be done through pair or small group discussions where they are allowed to share ideas, debate issues, defend their opinion, or explain thoughts or ideas, not only about the content but also about social issues that relate to the content. This builds their academic identity while also allowing them to express their cultural identity (Muhammad, 2018; Paris, 2012). School Leadership That Supports CLRP According to research, there is a direct positive correlation between leadership and student achievement and teacher turnover (Kaniuka & Kaniuka, 2019). Nationwide, the teaching force does not parallel the student population in most schools. As a result, school leaders are 38 increasingly offering support to teachers with racially diverse students in their classrooms. Teachers who are more successful at seeing student gains are those who access CLRP. Recognizing students’ identity and honoring their diversity allows them to construct meaning from content (Eubanks et al., 1997; McKenzie & Scheurich, 2004; Rigby & Tredway, 2015). When implementing CLRP, successful teaching avoids equity traps. Equity traps are patterns of thinking and behaviors that hinder students of color from experiencing equity in schools (McKenzie & Scheurich, 2004). Perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions cause teachers to form biases while justifying inequity. Bringing this to consciousness allows teachers to reframe thinking and allows schools to be democratic institutes that promote student learning for all. Moving beyond the deficit view that encourages equity traps, teachers employ strategies that cause them to learn who their students and families are along with their stories. This allows them to include CLRP where students see themselves in literature that mirrors who they are and their culture. This removes the equity trap of racial erasure, where teachers fail to acknowledge racial identity and the diversity of students. As principals identify equity traps and understand them, they are better able to interrupt and remove them so equity can exist. Principals who take strong vocal approaches on equity build a foundational guide that examines the impact and motivation of teacher actions (Rigby & Tredway, 2015). This reveals unconscious biases that prevent the goal of student learning or achievement. Effective school change depends on school leaders implementing discourse that sustains and accompanies reform. Discourse II are those uncomfortable conversations about inequities within schools. Schools that participate in Discourse II along with ambiguity and change, experience purposeful structure (Eubanks et al., 1997). Student achievement increases, eradicating the parallel relationships between race, class, and gender and low performance. 39 When changes involve increased cognitive demand for all students, it becomes culturally purposeful in school. Conclusion In this chapter, I shared three literature bins: Beginning Teachers, Mentoring, and Equitable Classroom Practices. After reviewing the literature, there is a clear disconnect between what research says beginning teachers need and want compared to what they receive. I believe the presence of mentors who can provide access to equitable classroom practices eliminate the null that causes teachers to feel they lack sufficient support. This FoP examines the knowledge, skills, and dispositions mentors need to provide access to equitable classroom practices. As discussed in this chapter, mentors have an opportunity to cultivate relationships with beginning teachers that allow the experience of coaching conversations that increase equitable classroom practices. CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN In this Participatory Action Research (PAR) study, I examined the extent to which mentors provide access to equitable classroom practices. As the literature and research show, mentors bring a wealth of knowledge and experience to guide BTs in becoming independent thinkers who can make decisions based on their understanding and knowledge. The work of supporting beginning teachers cannot be done solely by the principal, nor can the principal alone create changes needed for school systems to produce equitable outcomes for all students. Hence, effective mentoring rela