VISUALIZING PORT HISTORY: AN HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF WASHINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA’S HISTORIC WATERFRONT By Matthew Lowe May 2022 Director: Dr. Nathan Richards PROGRAM IN MARITIME STUDIES, DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY The purpose of this thesis is to combine new techniques of archaeological inquiry with established methods of data collection to gain a new understanding of the ways in which ports adapt over time. Ports and harbors have long been integral facets into the economic and social fabric of trade in the United States. However, over the past century, regional ports have been increasingly replaced by larger, centralized, port systems. The historic port of Washington, North Carolina, situated on the Tar-Pamlico River will be used as a case study to determine what economic factors contributed to its eventual decline. This study combines historical data, archaeological data, and three-dimensional reconstructions to analyze possible correlations between commodity production and waterfront commerce. Visualizing Port History: An Historical and Archaeological Reconstruction of Washington, North Carolina’s Historic Waterfront A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of History East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Maritime Studies By Matthew Lowe May 2022 © Matthew Lowe, 2022 VISUALIZING PORT HISTORY: AN HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF WASHINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA’S HISTORIC WATERFRONT By Matthew Lowe APPROVED BY DIRECTOR OF THESIS: _______________________________ (Nathan Richards, PhD.) COMMITTEE MEMBER: _______________________________ (Jason T. Raupp, PhD.) COMMITTEE MEMBER: _______________________________ (Christopher Oakley, PhD.) CHAIR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY: _________________________ (Jennifer McKinnon, PhD.) DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL: ________________________________ (Paul J. Gemperline, PhD.) Acknowledgments I want to thank many people for helping me complete this thesis. First, I want to thank my advisor, Dr. Nathan Richards, who helped guide me through the process, even when I thought I was falling behind. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Jason Raupp, and Dr. Christopher Oakley, for their input as this thesis progressed. I would also like to send my thanks and love to my parents for constantly supporting me through this rigorous process. Secondly, I would like to mention my brothers Taylor and Austin for their constant support and interest in what I have been researching. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Thesis Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 3 Previous Research ....................................................................................................................... 4 Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 7 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF PORT DEVELOPMENT ............................................................ 10 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 10 Historical-Morphological Approach ......................................................................................... 12 The Rise of Ports, 1450-1660 ................................................................................................ 13 Harbour Developments and Port Improvement, 1660-1840 ................................................. 14 The Emergence of Dock Systems 1690-1840 ......................................................................... 15 Expansion: New Docks and New Ports, 1840-1870 .............................................................. 17 The Height of Prosperity, 1870-1914 .................................................................................... 18 Stagnation and Decay, 1919-1980 ........................................................................................ 20 Geographic-Spatial Approach ................................................................................................... 21 Technological Considerations ............................................................................................... 22 Geographic and Spatial Considerations ............................................................................... 24 Historical-Geographic Approach ............................................................................................. 26 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER 3: HISTORY OF WASHINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA’S WATERFRONT INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................................. 31 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 31 Geography and Early History .................................................................................................... 32 Modernization and Expansion ................................................................................................... 35 Recovery and Rise to Prominence: 1875-1900 ..................................................................... 35 Height of Prosperity: 1900-1914 ........................................................................................... 39 Contraction and Decline ............................................................................................................ 41 Steady Decline: 1914-1945 ................................................................................................... 41 Waterfront Transformation: 1945-1973 ................................................................................ 44 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 45 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 47 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 47 Theoretical Foundation ............................................................................................................. 48 Historical Data Collection ......................................................................................................... 50 Secondary Sources ................................................................................................................. 50 Primary Sources .................................................................................................................... 51 Map Preparation (Photoshop) ............................................................................................... 55 Model Creation (Rhino 7)...................................................................................................... 59 Archaeological Data Collection ................................................................................................ 68 Analysis Methods ...................................................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER 5: MODELLING WASHINGTON’S ECONOMIC CHANGE, A YEAR-BY-YEAR SYNOPSIS .................................................................................................................................... 72 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 72 1885 ........................................................................................................................................... 74 1891 ........................................................................................................................................... 77 1896 ........................................................................................................................................... 81 1901 ........................................................................................................................................... 85 1904 ........................................................................................................................................... 89 1911 ........................................................................................................................................... 93 1916 ........................................................................................................................................... 97 1924 ......................................................................................................................................... 101 1943 ......................................................................................................................................... 105 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 109 CHAPTER 6: ECONOMIC AND VISUALIZATION ANALYSIS OF WASHINGTON’S WATERFRONT INDUSTRIES ................................................................................................. 110 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 110 Waterfront Industry Analysis .................................................................................................. 111 Agriculture and Fishing....................................................................................................... 111 Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine ....................................................................................... 120 Machine Shops and Foundries ............................................................................................ 130 Merchandise and Miscellaneous ......................................................................................... 133 Total Commercial Analyses .................................................................................................... 136 Total Commerce and Square Footage Analysis .................................................................. 137 Total Commerce and River Improvement Analysis ............................................................. 141 Waterfront Development Conclusions .................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 146 Final Verdict ............................................................................................................................ 149 Future Research ....................................................................................................................... 150 REFERENCES CITED ............................................................................................................... 151 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 157 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Table for each year showing the total tonnage produced and the area in square feet covered by each industry (Created by author, 2022). ................................................................... 67 TABLE 2: Breakdown of the production for each industry (Created by author, 2022). .............. 67 TABLE 3: Shows the federally expended value and the total commercial value of goods for each year (Created by author 2022). ..................................................................................................... 68 TABLE 4: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1885 (USACE 1885:1041-1042). ................................................................................................. 75 TABLE 5: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1885:1042). ....... 76 TABLE 6: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1885 (USACE 1885:161-162). . 77 TABLE 7: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1891 (USACE 1892:1122). ........................................................................................................... 79 TABLE 8: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1892:1122). ....... 80 TABLE 9: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1891 (USACE 1891:1349). ...... 81 TABLE 10: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1896 (USACE 1896:1102). ........................................................................................................... 83 TABLE 11: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1896:1102). ..... 84 TABLE 12: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1896 (USACE 1896:161-162). 85 TABLE 13: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1901 (USACE 1902:1132). ........................................................................................................... 87 TABLE 14: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1902:1132). ..... 88 Table 15: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1901 (USACE 1901:301,1487). . 89 TABLE 16: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1904 (USACE 1905:1205). ........................................................................................................... 91 TABLE 17: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1905:1205). ..... 92 TABLE 18: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1904. (USACE 1904:231-232, 1479). ............................................................................................................................................ 93 TABLE 19: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1911 (USACE 1912:1740-1741). ................................................................................................. 95 TABLE 20: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1912:1740-1741). .. 96 TABLE 21: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1911 (USACE 1911:354-356). 97 TABLE 22: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1916 (USACE 1917:2282-2283). ................................................................................................. 99 TABLE 23: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1917:2282-2283). 100 TABLE 24: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1916 (USACE 1916:542-545). ..................................................................................................................................................... 101 TABLE 25: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1924 (USACE 1925:467-468). ................................................................................................... 103 TABLE 26: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (UASCE 1925:467-468). .... 104 TABLE 27: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1924 (USACE 1924:524). .... 105 TABLE 28: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1943 (USACE 1944:496). ........................................................................................................... 107 Table 29: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1944:496). ................ 108 TABLE 30: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1943 (USACE 1943:428). .... 109 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: A Map of North Carolina from 1804 Showing Washington and its location on the Tar-Pamlico River (Carey, Matthew:1804). Carey’s American Atlas: Containing Twenty Maps and One Chart. Arrow added by author. ......................................................................................... 2 FIGURE 2: Historic Washington waterfront (Courtesy of the Historic Port of Washington Project). ......................................................................................................................................... 32 FIGURE 3: Page 267 of the 1900 USACE Annual Report, screenshot taken by author (USACE 1900:267). ..................................................................................................................................... 53 FIGURE 4: Page 1800 of the 1900 USACE Annual Report, screenshot taken by author (USACE 1900:1800). ................................................................................................................................... 54 FIGURE 5: Screenshot of composite map creation process, taken by author (Courtesy of Sanborn Insurance Maps 1885). .................................................................................................................. 56 FIGURE 6: Completed 1885 Sanborn Composite Map, screenshot taken by author (Sanborn Insurance Maps 1885). .................................................................................................................. 58 FIGURE 7: Screenshot taken by author of the outlined waterfront and blocks of the 1885 Washington Sanborn Map (Sanborn Insurance Map 1885). ......................................................... 61 FIGURE 8: A view of the 1885 Reconstructed Washington waterfront looking North across the Tar River (Created by author, 2021). ............................................................................................ 64 FIGURE 9: Key for the Washington waterfront Reconstruction layers (Created by author, 2021). ....................................................................................................................................................... 64 FIGURE 10: Uncropped image of the finalized 1885 (Created by the author, 2022). ................. 66 FIGURE 11: Cropped northwest side of the finalized 1885 map (Created by the author, 2022). 66 FIGURE 12: Cropped center view of the finalized 1885 map (Created by author, 2022). .......... 66 FIGURE 13: Cropped east side of the finalized 1885 map (Created by author, 2022). ............... 66 FIGURE 14: Sidescan Sonar Data overlayed onto the 1943 Washington Reconstruction (Created by author, 2022). ........................................................................................................................... 70 FIGURE 15: Visual context of the location of Washington on the Pamlico River and where the viewer is looking from in the direction of the waterfront. (Courtesy of Google Earth) text and arrow added by author. ................................................................................................................. 73 FIGURE 16: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1885, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. Limited (Created by author, 2022). ............................................................................................................ 74 FIGURE 17: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1891, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1891 (Created by author, 2022). ............................................................................................................ 78 FIGURE 18: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1896, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1896 (Created by author, 2022). ............................................................................................................ 82 FIGURE 19: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1901, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1901 (Created by author, 2022). ............................................................................................................ 86 FIGURE 20: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1904, Sanborn Map Co. 1904 (Created by author, 2022). ................................................................................................................................ 90 FIGURE 21: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1911, Sanborn Map Co. 1911 (Created by author, 2022). ................................................................................................................................ 94 FIGURE 22: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1916, Sanborn Map Co. 1916 (Created by author 2022). ................................................................................................................................. 98 FIGURE 23: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1924, Sanborn Map Co. 1924 ............. 102 FIGURE 24: 3D model of the southeast view of Washington’s waterfront in 1943, Sanborn Map Co. 1943 ...................................................................................................................................... 106 FIGURE 25: Line graph for Agriculture and Fishing Statistics in tons of goods produced for the studied years (Created by author 2022). ..................................................................................... 112 FIGURE 26: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). ........................................................................................................... 114 FIGURE 27: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1885 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Agriculture and Fishing layers (Courtesy of the author). ........................... 116 FIGURE 28: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1904 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Agriculture and Fishing layers (Courtesy of the author). ........................... 117 FIGURE 29: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1943 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Agriculture and Fishing layers (Courtesy of the author). ........................... 118 FIGURE 30: Line graph for Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). ....................................................................................... 121 FIGURE 31: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). ........................................................................................................... 123 FIGURE 32: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1885 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine layers (Courtesy of the author). .................. 127 FIGURE 33: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1901 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine layers (Courtesy of the author). .................. 128 FIGURE 34: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1943 reconstruction showing the Transportation and Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine layers (Courtesy of the author). .................. 129 FIGURE 35: Line graph for Machine Shop and Foundry Production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). ........................................................................................................... 131 FIGURE 36: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). ........................................................................................................... 132 FIGURE 37: Line graph for Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). ....................................................................................... 133 FIGURE 38: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). ........................................................................................................... 134 FIGURE 39: Line graph depicting the tonnage production for each industry and the total production of goods for Washington (Created by author, 2022). ............................................... 138 FIGURE 40: Area in square feet over time for each industry (Created by author, 2022). ......... 139 FIGURE 41: Federally expended funds compared to Washington’s yearly total commerce (Created by author, 2022). .......................................................................................................... 142 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Since the birth of maritime archaeology as a subdiscipline, the majority of the research has centered around shipwrecks such as the RMS Titanic (Michel and Ballard 1994), USS Monitor (Holloway 2012), or the CSS Hunley (Conlin and Russel 2006). While such sites are integral to understanding historical waterborne trade, the facilities that support those vessels are equally important. Regional ports serve in the littoral zone between the hinterlands and outgoing waterborne trade. They serve as areas of cultural exchange where ideas, goods, and capital from distant places meet, and have held these functions throughout history. Ports are also not static fixtures free of change or development. Their structures and functions have varied throughout history, responding to regional and global change. They evolved through the centuries from little more than beach landings to sophisticated systems supported by industry, dockyards, custom houses, and much more. However, they remain relatively understudied in the field of maritime archaeology. This is especially true when trying to determine the economic factors that pushed or pulled against them, and their possible responses to these factors. This thesis aims to help rectify those shortcomings through a case study focused on Washington, North Carolina’s historic waterfront. Situated on the north shore of the Tar-Pamlico River (Figure 1), it offers an excellent opportunity to study the economics of an early modern port and help fill a historical void about the history of Washington’s waterfront after the turn of the 20th century. The circumstances of the current state of Washington’s waterfront require new techniques to research this interesting part of North Carolina history. The town demolished its historic waterfront and filled it in over half a century ago to create a new, recreational waterfront. FIGURE 1: A Map of North Carolina from 1804 Showing Washington and its location on the Tar-Pamlico River (Carey, Matthew:1804). Carey’s American Atlas: Containing Twenty Maps and One Chart. Arrow added by author. Even though this is the case, extensive research can still be conducted on the evolution of the port. This thesis combines underwater archaeological survey data, historical economic data, and three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions to create a clearer picture of the historic port of Washington, the industries that sustained it, and the way in which it evolved to meet the demands of an ever-changing world. While the decline of Washington’s waterfront is the case study examined here, the types of events that precipitated its fall are not necessarily unique to Washington. Throughout the Western world during the early 20th century, small regional ports endured the same global trends 2 that led to Washington’s industry disappearing. Throughout history, the relationship between ports and vessels remained relatively stable. There existed a continuity between classes of ships and the ports in which they docked. Smaller vessels traded with smaller ports while larger vessels berthed at larger ports. Traders conducted their business at the ports of their choosing and ports sustained that trade by providing goods from the surrounding hinterland. However, as the 20th century progressed, the historical relationship between the two began to strain. Shipping and trade became more centralized. Trade increasingly flowed only into larger ports that could manage new container vessels. By the second half of the 20th century this trend solidified, additionally the connectivity of roads and railway lines made small scale shipping impractical (Litchfield 1976:234). The decline of the small regional port was ubiquitous in the western world during the early to mid-20th century. Studying this series of events is crucial to understanding the process and effects it had on the towns that historically supported those ports. Thesis Objectives Previous research and historical sources indicate that the port of Washington, once founded, flourished as a hub for passenger and commercial travel through the swampy terrain of Eastern North Carolina. The lack of roads and railways and the central location of Washington in the region allowed the port to expand and grow throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The variety of trade that flowed through the port supported by hinterland agriculture and the surrounding pine forests helped the town grow rapidly through the first half of the 19th century (Paschal 1976:1-5). The Civil War stunted the growth of the town only for the duration of the conflict but did not hamper Washington’s ability to recover from the devastation of the war and recover its position as the primary trading hub of the region (Warren 1976:45). The town 3 regained its footing and continued its prosperous trade through the end of the century. Railroads soon became the preeminent method of transporting goods and passengers and by the 1910s the waterfront trade became unprofitable and impractical (Litchfield 1976:234). Further studies on the fate of the waterfront are surprisingly lacking. Investigations into the economics of the port past the first and second decade of the 20th century are sparse. This research aims to rectify this apparent hole in research by correlating economic trends of the town with 3D reconstructions of a specific set of years between 1885 and 1943 which may shed further insight into the operations of the town after most historical narratives write it off. Further archaeological data of the historic port is combined with 3D reconstructions to find and investigate existing subsurface structures. Previous Research While earlier investigations of the economics of the historical waterfront are sparse, researchers have conducted many studies in and around Washington related to its history and archaeological remains. Many of those studies were conducted by East Carolina University history graduate students. Work has also been conducted on ports around the globe which help give a theoretical understanding to their development. Alicia Kramer’s (1996) thesis “The Pamlico Oyster, Crab, and Shrimp Industries: Early 20th Century” is an historical account of the fishing and shellfish industry in the Pamlico Sound during the 20th century. While it was not focused specifically on the production of these products in Washington, it gives an account for the region in which Washington is found. This was crucial in revealing the importance of aquatic resource harvesting in the area, which plays a part later in this thesis. 4 Chris McCabe’s (2007) thesis “The Development and Decline of Tar-Pamlico River Maritime Commerce and its Impact upon Regional Settlement Patterns” is historically focused research on the commerce of the Tar-Pamlico River. Washington, as a trading hub within the larger Eastern North Carolina trading network was examined. While no archaeological data was gathered, it helps illuminate the need for further research into the town. The most recent research is Will Nassif’s (2020) thesis “Reconstructing the Waterfront: An Historical and Archaeological Reconstruction of the Nineteenth Century Port of Washington, NC”. This work is related to the south shore landing site, across the Pamlico River from the port of Washington. That area contained various types of industrial production, most notably of which was turpentine. However, this study ends at the turn of the 20th century when the demand for goods produced in that area diminished and the businesses closed or left. Another ECU thesis of relevance is Sara Parkin’s (2019) “Reconstructing Buffalo City (1887-1986): Applying Archaeological Site Reconstruction Techniques to a North Carolina Maritime Entrepot”. Parkin’s study used the same Rhinoceros 3D (Rhino) 7 software that will be utilized later in this thesis and exemplified the potential for 3D reconstruction in archaeology as a valid avenue of inquiry. Other historical sources were consulted such as Michael Hill’s (1984) Historical Research Report: The Waterfront Area of Washington, North Carolina which gave a historical account of the Washington waterfront and helped further contextualize the economic role it played within the surrounding region. Louis Van Camp’s (2000) book Washington, North Carolina discussed the town of Washington rather than specifically its waterfront, however, it provided vital information on the waterfront industries of the early 20th century. The most expansive historical source consulted was Ursula Loy and Pauline Worthy’s (1976) edited book 5 Washington and the Pamlico. A commission for the 1976 bicentennial celebration of the founding of Washington, it presents a collection of essays by local historians of significant events in Washington up to 1976. This book offered integral information related to the town prior to the Civil War, the reconstruction period, its growth, and the waterfront’s decline. Work on the role that ports have played around the globe was also an important facet to understand the theoretical approaches that help frame the rest of this work. Gordan Jackson’s (1983) book The History and Archaeology of Ports was a great starting point. It gave a historical and morphological assessment for the ports of Great Britain from the 1600s through 1983. The changes and adaptations of ports is discussed through the world wars and the container revolution. It gave insight into the ways that port systems interact and evolve with the wider world. B.S. Hoyle and D. Hilling’s edited book Seaport Systems and Spatial Change: Technology, Industry, and Development Strategies (1984) provided a geographic perspective on ports. This collection of geographic essays with case studies of ports around the world considers whether the geographic location of those ports was an advantage or detriment to their success. This book helped frame Washington within its geographic location and the ways in which that might have helped or harmed its growth. Finally, editors Tapio Bergholm, Lewis R. Fischer, and M. Elizabeth Tonizzi in their book (2007) Making Global and Local Connections: Historical Perspectives on Ports provided a geographic and historical approach to port development. This book is also a collection of essays from geographers, historians, and economists who wrote about various case studies around the world. It was crucial to gaining a holistic understanding of how economics, geography, and history all play a part in determining the success of port systems. All these studies, reports, and books helped form the research design that guides this thesis. The historical background of the port, the lack of archaeological research of the port, a 6 proven way to go about the research, and the theoretical framework in which to place the research all form the foundation of the investigation conducted in this study. Research Questions This research will use historic economic data, archaeological data, and 3D reconstructions to answer the question, can a visual reconstruction of the progression of Washington’s waterfront provide an adequate assessment as to why and how the industry of the waterfront declined and eventually disappeared? To answer this primary question, secondary questions have been established that will help conduct and focus the study. These secondary questions include: • What contributing economic factors led to the decline of the waterfront industries? • Was the decrease of trade the primary factor for the dissipation and eventual abandonment of the industrial waterfront? • Does this methodology provide a viable option for further research, both inside and outside of academia? The 3D reconstructions imbued with historical economic and archaeological data is the driving force behind answering these proposed questions. Another, more abstract objective of this thesis, is determining if this methodology is viable for use in further research or public outreach. A chronological reconstruction and subsequent investigation of a port using this archaeological methodology has not yet been conducted by any students at East Carolina University. Thus, this study presents a case study into possible future uses of this type of research. 7 Thesis Structure This thesis consists of seven chapters. “Chapter One: Introduction” gives a brief introduction to the thesis topic and includes a brief history of Washington, the previous research into this topic, and the importance of this study. It also includes the objectives of this thesis and the questions that guides the research. “Chapter Two: Theories of Port Development” explains the driving theoretical approaches that helped to frame this research. The morphological, geographic, and historical changes to ports over the centuries helps to contextualize the following chapter. “Chapter Three: History of Washington, North Carolina’s Waterfront Industries” provides a detailed description of the history of the port of Washington during the period studied in this thesis. A description of the early growth of the town is followed by its place within the context of the Civil War, which is followed by discussions of the reconstruction era, its rise to prominence, stagnation, and further decline. “Chapter Four: Methodology” details the various methods used through this research. These include historical data collection, the process of reconstruction using Photoshop and Rhino 7 software, the presentation of the reconstruction results, the processing of archaeological data, and the procedures used to analyze collected datasets. This leads into “Chapter Five: Modelling Washington’s Economic Change, a Year-By-Year Synopsis.” This chapter deals with the results of the study and presents reconstructions of the waterfront in a series of 3D models, presented in chronological order, and where historical data has been embedded within model datasets. “Chapter 6: Economic and Visualization Analysis of Washington’s Waterfront” repackages Chapter 5’s datasets in a comparative and diachronic fashion to present a picture of an evolving 8 waterfront. Washington’s industrial waterfront is analyzed using models as visualization tools and paired with economic data, and in doing so, the secondary thesis questions are answered. “Chapter 7: Conclusions” provides a recapitulation of the findings of the research and sums up the overall conclusions about the study. This chapter also describes deficiencies in this work, as well as possible avenues of future research. 9 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF PORT DEVELOPMENT Introduction Since the inception of maritime archaeology as a subdiscipline of archaeology, maritime archaeologists have been primarily concerned with studying the vessels which have plied the oceans’ waters for millennia. This focus on vessels, however, is not the only form of academic investigation that maritime archaeologists can conduct. Another area of inquiry relates to ports. Ports inhabit the region of liminal space between the water and land. They are a point of transition from one element to another and as such they can provide valuable insights into the trading, business, and cultural processes of the past (Rogers 2011:4). The recognition and study of this liminal space is necessary because the development of ports has shifted completely from waterfront industry and business to separate outports that do not produce the same kind of interactions which traditional ports have for most of human history. Historically, ports have been located within urban centers, with many situated near commercial hubs of towns or cities. However, the mid-20th century saw the beginning of a trend that split urban-commercial centers from ports. Modernization, globalization, and increased scale, among other factors, led to this spatial and functional divergence. Since the modernization and increased scale of maritime commerce, this gap has only grown (Hayuth 1982:219). This ever-widening divide had a devastating effect on many small, regional-industrial ports. The globalized economies of scale have outcompeted small ports and their ability to stay relevant in an ever-changing world economy. The western world by the 1950s shifted into a stage of high mass consumption. Simultaneously the small packet traders of earlier centuries with their logistical bases in regional ports became unprofitable and eventually disappeared (Rostow 1960:10). Though the systematic research of ports and their development is relatively understudied archaeologically, there are both historical and economic theories that describe how this transition took place. The first approach is historical and morphological in nature and is espoused in Gordon Jackson’s book The History and Archaeology of Ports (1983). This book details the rise and fall of Great Britain’s regional and larger ports from a historical and archaeological perspective. These ports grew from the trade that they received, and that exchange was based on the production of goods and products in the hinterland of the region. The regional economies, their rise and fall, and how that change effected the trade of the regional ports is discussed. Jackson asserts that once those regional economies collapsed due to various factors including technological innovation, the regional trading port centers and their economies collapsed with them (Jackson 1983:47). The second approach focuses on the geographic and spatial relationships of regional and cosmopolitan ports to the overall local and global economy. This theory is argued by geographers and economists who place local ports within their relationship to other regional and international ports of the area. This view is argued by geographers such as B.S. Hoyle and D. Hilling in their book Seaport Systems and Spatial Change: Technology, Industry, and Development Strategies (1984). They link the geographic locations of ports and discuss their relationship between the hinterland and wider markets to the economic downfall of regional ports. They assert that the success of ports in advanced economies are dependent on two factors of interport competition and locational characteristics. These factors push and pull, and most small, regional ports were outcompeted and in the wrong location to produce lasting success in a 11 technologically and logistically advancing world (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:2). This argument is supported by larger, more general economic theorists such as W.W. Rostow who theorizes the stages of economic development of nations in his book The Stages of Economic Growth (1960). These five stages include: The Traditional Society, The Preconditions for Take-off, The Take- off, The Drive to Maturity, and The Age of Mass-Consumption (Rostow 1960:3). Though details about ports and their development do not plainly appear in the text, larger issues of growth and decline in economies are used to provide evidence to support Hoyle and Hilling’s claim. The third argument is a combination of both historical and geographic theories. Exemplified by Tapio Bergholm, Lewis R. Fischer, and M. Elisabeth Tonizzi’s edited book Making Global and Local Connections: Historical Perspectives on Ports (2007), which provides a holistic approach to the issue with historical, geographic, and economic data used to discuss the global market interplays, technological and transportation innovations, and socio-economic relationships that led to the changing nature of modern-day ports (Bergholm et al. 2007:vii). In this chapter each theoretical perspective is discussed in detail to create a suitable framework. The historical/morphological perspective is investigated first, followed by a discussion of the geographic/spatial/economic theory, and then an assessment of the combined historical/economic approach. This will supply a foundation of theoretical approaches that is utilized further in this thesis. Historical-Morphological Approach In his book The History and Archaeology of Ports, Gordon Jackson gives a thorough accounting of the ports of Great Britain and the ways they expanded and contracted from the mid-15th century through the late-20th century. Using an historical approach, he tracks the 12 morphological changes of ports as they adapt to the changing trade systems of the British Isles and larger British Empire. He describes these changes in six distinct historic periods: The Rise of Ports 1450-1660; Harbour Developments and Port Improvement, 1660-1840; The Emergence of Dock Systems, 1690-1840; Expansion, New Docks and New Ports, 1840-1870; The Height of Prosperity, 1870-1914; Stagnation and Decay, 1919-1980. Jackson then classifies the various harbor and port developments over the centuries as products of increased trade. He asserts that docks in the United Kingdom grew because of the trade that flowed through them, rather than trade being attracted by a good dock system (Jackson 1983:47). Although this theory is based on British ports, the model can be applied and compared to American ports such as Washington, North Carolina. The Rise of Ports, 1450-1660 Jackson argues that the rise of ports in the 15th century was due to increased population and an increased demand for regional materials that began to appear in Europe. Local communication networks were also poor enough that many people who lived on the coasts looked toward the sea rather than land for transportation and communication. The third factor that he describes is the inability of beaches and local landings to support any meaningful trade systems. As trade began to flourish, more organized and centralized areas of transactions were subsequently established. Ports were initially placed wherever convenient, but as trade and demand increased through the 16th century, outports and places of convenience began to decline. Many could not handle the trade volume, which was expected, some had less than ideal locations on slow moving waterways, and some simply succumbed to erosion and natural deterioration. As these small outports declined, larger ports such as London began to rise and take over the 13 regional trade (Jackson 1983:14-19). The establishment of the British Empire and international trade further changed the nature of British port development. By the 17th century trade conflicts with the Dutch abated while ascendency in the East Indies and dominance in North America established the British Isles as a central location for European trade. Trade with the Baltic States, Ireland, Scotland, the European continent, and the British colonies helped revive some outports that were previously in decline such as Bristol, Hull, and Liverpool. Increased demand for British goods also helped propel the development of ports. The coastal trade also flourished with many ports only conducting local and regional trade (Jackson 1983:24-29). Harbour Developments and Port Improvement, 1660-1840 By the late 18th century, the industrial revolution was underway and British port trade volume increased with demand in kind. Though some ports adapted to the increases in volume, a large number did not. Jackson divides these unimproved harbors into three categories: one is where the level of trade was unable to financially provide for port improvements, the second were prosperous small ports which chiefly traded agricultural goods from slow growing hinterlands that did not cause congestion, and the third were prosperous large ports serving rapidly developing hinterlands but had natural harbors large enough to accommodate increased trade. Many of the ports which were not financially able to provide any kind of physical improvements fell into decay. The more prosperous ports, however, did not need substantial improvement and were successful in dealing with the increased shipping volume (Jackson 1983:30-33). 14 Riverine ports were also prolific during the 18th century, and many suffered from silting which required large investments and oftentimes questionable solutions to the problem. This caused most of the river ports to lose in the long run; shortages of money and continuous dredging operations ran most of them into the ground. Some coastal ports were developed or built during this time as well. Pier ports were created on open coastlines with piers built out and/or parallel to the tide to create an artificial barrier between the harbor and the surf. These types of artificial ports were primarily suited for the transportation of minerals which could easily be transported down the steep cliffs that were a predominant geologic feature of artificial port areas. Harbors of refuge were also established throughout the 18th century on coastlines to provide safe locations for vessels in particularly treacherous waters or if storms arose, though these types of ports were of mixed success. At Ramsgate two large piers were constructed perpendicular to the shoreline and provided a safe entryway into the basin which ships could anchor. However, the lack of trade that Ramsgate provided made the effort of little commercial value. The port of Dover provided greater success as trade with France across the English Channel sustained longer term growth. The development of smaller ports saw mixed success during this time and while important innovations were taking place, they did not always provide a solution to the problem of low levels of trade (Jackson 1983:33-41). The Emergence of Dock Systems 1690-1840 Though ports and harbors provided centers of trade and places of refuge, larger issues began to occur with port systems that they were not predisposed to face. Jackson describes the next phase of port development as the arrival and integration of docks into larger port systems. From the late 17th through the mid-19th centuries, dock systems were established throughout 15 English ports. Docks were initially developed to handle the laying up of ships for non-trading seasons such as winter or for vessels that were staying in the port for longer periods of time. Jackson asserts that these early dock systems developed within ports of cities such as London and Bristol and were non-commercial. This is exemplified by the Howland dock which did not have any kind of warehouses, customs houses, or ancillary trade structures. The initial dock system was only for the laying up of vessels while they were not in use to free up space on the busy commercial ports (Jackson 1983:44-45). In 1715, Liverpool was the first British port to combine the dock system with the commercial center of the port. They accomplished this by constructing a dock that was near enough to the commercial port and included storage facilities for trade goods. The successful implementation of this idea spurred a frenzy of dock development through the 18th century. Hull soon followed with a larger dock that was located inland rather than placed on water frontage as was the case with Liverpool. Bristol, London, and other ports began dock construction as well. There were a few problems, however, with the ways in which port and dock development continued. One problem was flooding which could destroy ships and their support piers and quays. The other was centered around the tides; when tides went out vessels would remain stranded and might incur structural damage. This issue was solved by the Floating Harbor of Bristol, which was able to permanently keep vessels afloat and keep the water level stable within the dock through a feeder canal from the Avon River. Though a seemingly obvious solution to this problem, the development of these kinds of dock systems was integral to the growth of maritime trade. As trade expanded, more and larger ships appeared which necessitated the construction of systems such as the Liverpool dock and the Bristol Floating Harbor. Larger dock 16 systems and harbors began to develop and expand at a faster rate due to the economic incentives brought on by higher numbers of trade vessels (Jackson 1983:44-48, 52-53). Expansion: New Docks and New Ports, 1840-1870 The next phase of port development appeared on the back of the industrial revolution and the new technologies that appeared in the subsequent years. Jackson argues that prosperous trade, the steamship, and introduction of the railroad all played a massive role in changing the nature of ports. The ‘old’ commercial, city center-based ports began to be replaced with systems adequate to handle new technologies in the years from 1840-1870 (Jackson 1983:73). Prosperous trade led to the creation of larger ships which began to stress the old port systems that were not suitable to serve larger vessels. Ships could be tied up in port for weeks at a time and the design of the old docks did not account for this specific need. A solution for this problem was found in the mid-19th century with the development of internal pier systems. These piers would extend perpendicular from the dock, and they created large amounts of extra space to keep vessels. After this development, docks became either long and narrow to service many ships, or they required internal piers to be able to service an adequate number of vessels. Increased trade also necessitated the construction of quayside warehouses such as the ones built in London. These two innovations changed the face of ports and their subsidiary docks to a point where they did not resemble earlier ports and began to take the shape of modern ports (Jackson 1983:73-74). The introduction of the steamship in the early and mid-19th century added to the problems of port systems not adapted to the new type of vessel. Steamers were an entirely new class of ship that required different parameters of movement from traditional sailing vessels. One 17 steamer, Wilberforce, at 190 feet long and 38 feet wide needed at least three times its length in space to maneuver while coming to the Hull dock. Steamships required rapid entry and exits to ports and could not be stacked close or against each other like sailing vessels. The issue of space versus efficiency created a massive dilemma for port authorities who tried to build new docks to keep up with demand, however, these constructions would not come to fruition due to the introduction of the railroad (Jackson 1983:74-75). The integration of railroads into port systems seems like a forgone conclusion in hindsight, yet many ports were not built with express interest to hinterland connection. Railroads disrupted this traditional way of designing port systems. Old ports needed to be adapted to new technologies, railroads were difficult to incorporate into port systems that did not plan for them from the outset. The port of Hull for instance, floundered with its initial railway investments while the monopolized London docks, which had planned for railroad integration into separate dock areas, adapted with little trouble (Jackson 1983:80-83). The creation of modern ports would not be complete without the addition of steam cranes and machinery. This development changed the dockside characteristics of the port along with railroads. In increasing numbers, cargo was no longer hauled by men but by hydraulic machinery. The use of mechanical dredges also began to appear and replaced other, more rudimentary methods of excavation (Jackson 1983:96-104). The Height of Prosperity, 1870-1914 The next phase of historical port development occurred from 1870 to 1914 which Jackson argues this is the height of prosperity for ports. This period of economic boom was due to many 18 factors. The integration of railways and steamships was a new method of faster and cheaper transportation. However, these new technologies did not overwhelm the more traditional methods of shipborne transportation such as sail. This allowed for ports to service a wide range of vessels (Jackson 1983:114). Global demand for consumer products caused an increase in the demand for bulk goods both exported and imported into Great Britain. Due to these demand spikes, ship size and tonnage increased. While small packet traders were still utilized, cargo transportation vessels became increasingly large. The size range of these vessels meant that during this period small ports were generally still relevant while larger ports such as London, Liverpool, and Bristol had to adapt to cater to larger vessels. Port improvements to the larger docks meant general improvements to the wharves and quays, increasing the size of locks and dock space while also increasing the warehouse capacity on shore. There was also the further integration of steam power on the docks including expanded railway connections and steam cranes. While port investments were extremely expensive, it was the larger ports which could incur and sustain the costs while the smaller ports generally did not have to go bankrupt trying to catch up to market forces (Jackson 1983:114-126). Railway connections to minor ports was one of the main integrations happening to regional trading centers during this time. The consistent building of railroads from the hinterlands into ports initially expanded trading opportunities and did not take too much away from the importance of waterfronts. Many of these railroads helped the port system expand. However, these positive trends eventually reversed with new technologies playing an increasingly important role in transportation leading to the demise of many ports both big and small (Jackson 1983:136-138). 19 Stagnation and Decay, 1919-1980 The First World War slashed the economic boom that had overtaken the world during the prior fifty years. Due to the desire to a return to normalcy, at least in Great Britain, there was a corresponding decrease in the desire to adapt to changes in shipping. Though trade recovered to a seemingly normal level by the late 1920s, drastic changes in shipping occurred that many ports were not prepared to handle. While the amount of trade was stable, ship numbers decreased while their corresponding tonnage values increased. This centralization of maritime trade continued with increases in long distance trade that required larger ships and specialized facilities. The bulk trade of oil exemplifies this trend as it necessitated specific ships and port facilities to carry the commodities. The depression of the 1930s further hampered trade and the construction or improvements of port facilities (Jackson 1983:140-160). The shipping revolution which occurred after the Second World War solidified this mold. The invention of the forklift in 1950 made it natural for the creation of wooden pallets that could hold multiple boxes or barrels of goods. Even though this invention on the surface would seem like a great assistance to small ports due to increased efficiency, it called for the immediate restructuring of those small ports. Paved, concrete quays were now required for the successful transfer of goods using a forklift. The warehouses as well needed to adapt to the heights that forklifts could reach which meant that the usual low-level ceilings of warehouses needed to be raised to increase the storage space (Jackson 1983:151-153). Port system stresses increased with the simultaneous inventions of “Roll on/Roll” off cargo transfer (Ro/Ro) and containerization. By this point, however, Ro/Ro shipping required little adjustment to the standard practices of a port. Floating pontoons or adjustable ramps are all the Ro/Ro ships needed to unload their cargo and these could be easily and cheaply built and 20 added to existing port structures. The cargo was also generally self-propelled, which required no additional crane or equipment to accommodate shipments. The final nail on the coffin of the old port system was the introduction of the container in 1950. It became apparent to port authorities that to increase trade volume, containerization that had begun to develop in the Second World War would need to be adopted. The old port systems were generally too worn out and small to accommodate this last piece of the shipping revolution. The flow of trade coming and going from smaller coastal ports began to wane as the traffic shifted to larger and more well-equipped ports. Small haul cargo ships were supplanted by the large container vessels that ply the oceans today. Container transportation was tested throughout the 1960s in American waters and by the 1970s began to take over all transatlantic trade. These monumental shifts in maritime shipping have continued to dominate trade through the present (Jackson 1983:152-155). Through his book, The History and Archaeology of Ports (1983), Gordon Jackson details the five stages of developments that the ports of Great Britain took through the centuries. Though this theoretical perspective is focused on British ports, this historical approach can be applied to other western ports such as those located in North America. Geographic-Spatial Approach Geographers B.S. Hoyle and D. Hilling outline a geographic-spatial theoretical approach in their book, Seaport Systems and Spatial Change: Technology, Industry, and Development Strategies (1984). This book and the associated geographic theory material focus on the world of shipping post-1945 and on the geographic and economic motivations and relationships that contribute to port development. In this context ports are described as being within a port-urban interface. They lie within the liminal space between the water and the hinterlands. Ports typically 21 coexisted with the urban centers within the port-urban interface. Cities would provide good areas for safe harbors and trade opportunities, while the port would provide the city with a central location for commerce while also keeping the industry of the city in business (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:1-2). The authors assert that a historical approach to port development might seem effective at conveying a continuous progression of events. However, economic patterns are not always stable and regional economies rise and fall. These events can be caused in part by the demands and stresses of larger activity and trade systems that might not be obvious to people of one specific region (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:6). For Hilling and Hoyle, technological, geographic, and spatial factors must be taken into consideration. Technological Considerations One of the larger concerns regarding the development of regional ports relates to spatial and geographic characteristics. The need to be able to house and manage the cargo vessels docked in the area is a cornerstone to the success of any port system. Over the course of the last half of the 20th century, the ability for regional ports to perform this basic function dramatically decreased. Prior to this development, in the early to mid-20th century, methods of cargo handling were simple, based on gangs of workers whose productivity was relatively low at 12-20 tons per gang hour. Due to this, many vessels typically spent between 50-80 percent of the time on voyages tied up in port. These low efficiency handling procedures, as well as natural limitations on many ports, kept the sizes of vessels stable at 5000-8000 tons for deep sea trades. However, by the 1950s and 1960s, these methods became obsolete as labor and port time costs increased (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:9). 22 The first innovation in cargo handling was the pallet, which improved the efficiency of ship-shore transfer of cargo. Standardized dimensions for cargo shortly followed, instead of measurement by worker-loads goods were measured by unit-loads. Standardized container characteristics as well as maximum weight for machinery handling was implemented. The standardization did not stop at the ship-shore transfer; these measures allowed freight to be shipped from origin to destination without the breaking of bulk. These methods were not only intended for the ship-shore transfer but also for the through journey from the origin to the destination (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:9-10). The natural progression that this process took was the implementation of the International Organization for Standardization [ISO] container system in the 1960s. Thereafter, containerization spread rapidly and increased the size of vessels dramatically. The first generation of container ships were around 750 tons with a 180 meter (m) length and a 9m draft. The third generation of ships were around 3000 tons with a 275m length and a 12.5m draft. These vessels have only continued to increase in size. Containerization and the scale of these vessels dramatically increased efficiency with the downside of lower employment and only a small number of ports that can handle this type of trade. Container port labor forces could be reduced by as much as 90 percent, with an output that might be 10 times greater than productivity levels prior to the introduction of the container. Container ports are also space intensive. Traditional ports might need around 1 hectare (ha) of land per berth for storage while container ports need somewhere between 12-20 ha per berth of open-hard surface for efficient ship to trailer transfer. Gantry cranes provide increased productivity at a little less than 900 containers in a 24-hour period, so the port time spent by a vessel is greatly reduced all while ship sizes continue to increase (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:10-11). 23 Increases in ship sizes and productivity also led to a staggering concentration of trade. The high cost of constructing and equipping container terminals and the ship owner’s desire to minimize ports of call led to this shift. This also marks a change in the hinterland-port dynamic. A small number of large container terminals with high-capacity inland transport links can now serve a much larger hinterland than was previously possible (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:11). The shipping revolution dramatically shifted the port-hinterland relationship and put incredible amounts of stress on regional ports that had never handled that much cargo before. The distinction between small and large amounts of cargo was no longer divided between small and large ports. Because of centralized containerization, large ports handled almost all the shipping. Smaller ports were outcompeted economically and when they were not, their ability to adapt to the new technology was a function of their geographic characteristics. The efficiency of their connections between the sea and hinterland were of immense value. Many, however, did not have the kind of connection required to keep them running (Hoyle and Hilling, 1984:11). Geographic and Spatial Considerations There is a two-way interaction between a port and its hinterland. The development of a regional economy, initially, may well be a function of adequately provisioned port facilities. However, in the long term, it is the health and sustainability of hinterland trade that determines the fortune of a port. This connection is sustained by the inland transportation system that links the two. During the 19th century many ports were defined by their railroad connectivity. In ports without large, navigable waterways, railroads supplied the means of getting goods into and out of port. Railroads, however, are exceptionally good at transporting bulk goods in dense traffic flows. Essentially, they are great at transporting large amounts of goods, such as coal or iron ore, 24 over intermediate distances and without the need for transshipment. Heavy industrial development such as that seen at the turn of 20th century utilized this kind of transportation. However, the mass consumption stage of modern economic development does not necessarily require this kind of transportation. Road networks on the other hand, provide a high level of density, connectivity, and accessibility that railways cannot attain. This shift in hinterland connectivity caused a change in traditional port traffic. Some ports may lose their traffic while others might extend and increase connectivity to their hinterlands. These changes are marked by well-established, competitive inland transportation systems. Due to this, individual ports and their hinterland links are more likely to be exclusive and defined in terms of existing transportation links (Hoyle and Hilling 1984:7-9). For ports with existing transportation methods such as railroads and roadways, there is another spatial factor that affected adaptation and progression. Traditionally, these transportation links would connect a port and its hinterland through the urban center of the city where the port was located. However, containers require an efficient interface between water and land transportation. Efficient and high-volume traffic, whether by railroad or roadway, cannot be sustained in the congested confines of modern urban waterfronts. It needs uncongested access to major inland transportation systems and market or distribution centers. In many cases neither the land nor transportation access required can be found in old port districts within urban areas. This necessitates the relocation of port facilities. Container trucks cannot maneuver in large centers such as Manhattan, just as they cannot maneuver in small town regional ports (Hayuth 1982:221). This relocation creates another question – where exactly will facilities be relocated? Congested urban waterfronts, lack of port back up space, the high cost of land and labor near a 25 port, and new strategies of cargo distribution allow for the creation of inland container depots that are tens or sometimes hundreds of miles away from the shoreline. Some are located as far from the West Coast as Utah and Montana. These inland facilities have taken on many of the traditional port functions as well such as cargo consolidation, customs clearing, forwarding, container marshalling, packing, and container repair. Other non-maritime innovations have greatly affected urban ports. Commercial aviation has essentially eliminated passenger liners which in turn severely reduced the use of passenger terminals. The decentralization of manufacturing to the outskirts of cities or away from metropolitan areas necessitated a modification to traditional port locations. The geographic proximity of a city and port, which was once an advantage, has now become a detriment and stunts port development (Hayuth 1982:221). The Geographic-Spatial approach can be used in conjunction with the historical perspective on port development. This approach focuses on the geographic, spatial, and economic factors that have led to the rapid revolution in waterborne cargo transportation. The Historical-Geographic approach takes both theoretical perspectives and combines them into a holistic theory that describes historical factors as well as geographic and economic factors that lead to port development around the globe, including regional ports such as Washington, North Carolina. Historical-Geographic Approach A final perspective, a Historical-Geographic approach is laid out by port historians Tapio Bergholm, Lewis R. Fischer, and M. Elizabeth Tonizzi in their (2004) book, Making Global and Local Connections: Historical Perspectives on Ports. They describe ports as being focal nodes 26 between competitive global maritime commerce while being tightly connected to local political, social, industrial, and transport networks. Due to this, ports lie at a crossroads between international, national, and local historiography. If historians are to understand the links between ports, their history, and the wider world, they need to be investigated within this holistic view (Bergholm et al. 2004:vii). An example of the intersection of all these factors is found in the evolution of northern Chilean ports during the late 19th through the 20th centuries. These ports initially expanded based on the exploitation of mineral resources and raw materials that are found in that region of Chile. The mountainous geography and topology of that region necessitated transportation of commerce over water rather than land. The commercial development combined with the rough terrain made the use of waterborne transportation preferrable to that of overland travel. These two factors led to the initial creation of ports in the region (Badia-Miro 2004:153). The development of these ports was initially a function of the local geography; however, historical trends and economic forces played their part in developing northern Chilean ports. The 1904 commercial output shows that bigger ports such as Antofagasta and Iquique provided larger entrances for vessels and were the center of trade for foodstuffs and manufactured goods while many smaller ports such as Togai were only focused on extracting and shipping raw materials such as nitrates. Due to the smaller ports’ lack of diversity, they were prone to disturbances from shifts in the global market. The 1920s marked a period of readjustment for the ports caused by World War I, however, their recovery was relatively weak due to the invention and increasing demand for synthetic fertilizers. This weak recovery was stunted further by the Great Depression in 1929, which saw demand for nitrates decrease even further. By the 1930s 27 half of the 28 ports that were operating at the beginning of the century had disappeared (Badia- Miro 2004:154-159). From the 1930s to the 1970s, the remaining ports shifted their priorities based on global demand and domestic policies that heavily favored industrialized processes. The previously important nitrate mining ports were superseded by ports that specialized in the handling of copper exportation due to copper’s increasing demand on the global market. Larger entrance ports began a process of increased centralization in the port system that brought about the production of manufactured and semi manufactured goods. The ports which specialized in the export of foodstuffs also adjusted to these changes and began to provide more food shipments to the larger manufacturing ports in the north. This period of northern Chile’s port development was characterized by the modernization of many production methods and the import of machinery, as well as an increase in jobs in the manufacturing sector (Badia-Miro 2004:160- 167). The period from the 1970s on saw some other changes to the port system structure. A process of deindustrialization caused some manufacturing jobs to disappear and a subsequent dispersion of the population to more rural based industries such as fishing and agriculture. The copper industry, however, remained a key part of the economy and due to the capital-intensive nature of the extraction process, copper ports remained large population centers. The machinery and tools required for copper extraction also required the ports to adapt to the needs of the industry. The copper mining ports became a more integrated and sustainable system during this period. Despite ongoing deindustrialization, the larger ports still cemented themselves as the manufacturing centers of the region. The smaller, specialized agriculture and fishing ports that still survived provided the foodstuffs for the more centralized mining and manufacturing regions 28 (Badia-Miro 2004:164-169). Industries such as nitrates that led the Chilean economy at the beginning of the 20th century were phased out due to global market demands. The ports that supplied and exported those raw materials were so specialized for that one industry it was impossible for them to adapt, and they eventually died out. Ports then began to grow around regions with still viable economic opportunities such as those centered around copper mines or manufacturing centers. Populations grew as the jobs and money in those areas began to increase. The more decentralized, smaller ports that were still around were focused on agriculture and they subsequently were able to provide food for the larger, centralized areas (Badia-Miro 2004:169). The historical-geographic approach connects many factors with the development of ports including the larger historical trends that shaped the global economy and markets. The foreign and domestic developments that shaped the port system were also considered. The geographic location of the ports is also of primary importance as that determines its proximity to the wider markets and also helps to define its specific role in those markets. Overall, the historical- geographic approach holistically takes in and analyzes as many as possible of the factors that affect the development of a port. Washington, North Carolina, like the ports of northern Chile, developed and evolved due to these same factors, which will be assessed later in this thesis. Conclusion The Historical-Morphological, Geographic-Spatial, and Historical-Geographic approaches to port development describe the ways in which ports and the systems that support them change and adapt over time. Historical trends in all manner of life from economics to domestic and foreign policies help dictate which industries become more viable as time progresses. Geographic considerations are of utmost importance when considering areas 29 associated with port survival and failure. Each of these theoretical approaches can be applied to Washington, North Carolina. The morphological changes that Jackson (1983) describes goes hand in hand with Hoyle and Hilling’s (1984) assertions regarding the geography and spatial relationship of a port which both play into historical and geographic context, as argued by Historical-Spatial theory proponents. 30 CHAPTER 3: HISTORY OF WASHINGTON, NORTH CAROLINA’S WATERFRONT INDUSTRY Introduction Washington North Carolina is a small town located on the coast of North Carolina. It once had a bustling industrial waterfront (Figure 2) with thriving trade but over the last century the industry vanished, and a recreational waterfront replaced it. This chapter outlines the history of Washington from its formation to its period of expansion and modernization. It then describes the time through the period of industrial contraction and economic decline to 1973 when the recreational waterfront was created. This is intended to provide a background and historical context of the town which is used later in this thesis to analyze the reasons for its industrial decline. To understand how this process occurred, it is necessary to break up the history into distinct periods. The Geography and Early History section will give a general background into Washington’s waterfront history through the Civil War. The Modernization and Expansion section is the history of the waterfront during its height of prosperity from the reconstruction period through the beginning of the First World War. Contraction and Decline highlight the period between the ending of the First World War through the completion of the waterfront revitalization project that took place in 1973. The division of the waterfront’s history into distinct phases is necessary to fully understand why and how Washington’s waterfront went from an industrial high during the turn of the century to complete demolition in relatively short time. FIGURE 2: Historic Washington waterfront circa 1900 (Courtesy of the Historic Port of Washington Project). Geography and Early History Washington was founded in 1776 by James Bonner. Situated on the north side of the Tar River at the opening of the Pamlico Sound, it quickly became an important hub of activity for eastern North Carolina. During the American Revolution, the town became a center for privateer activity as vessels being outfitted there plied the Atlantic to hunt British shipping. At the end of the revolution the town shifted into a more conventional, commercial role. By the 1780s, large wharves had been constructed with the ability to berth around twenty trading vessels. Tobacco, turpentine, tar, pitch, rosin, furs, boards, shingles, among other regional goods, were regularly shipped to the West Indies and other states along the east coast. By 1800, mercantile houses had been established by the Blount firm, with the Fowle brothers arriving shortly afterwards. This variety of trade combined with large business interests to set the stage for the next half century of Washington’s prosperous maritime trade (Paschal 1976:1-5). This booming trade is exemplified by the 130 vessels that entered Washington’s port in 1796 alone. In 1812 a substantial bridge across the Pamlico was constructed with funding and 32 lumber provided by Washington and its residents, marking a major improvement to the town’s infrastructure. The Fowle brothers also arrived in Washington in 1812 and by 1818 they had established a shipbuilding company on Castle Island. Tannyhill and Lavender founded the first sawmill around this time, which helped supply the blossoming shipbuilding industry (Worthy 1976:11). The turpentine and tar industries quickly expanded in the early 19th century as well. Many distilleries were constructed on the south side of the Tar River just opposite of Washington, due to the fire hazard the production of turpentine posed (Nassif 2019:20-21). By 1830 the population had doubled to over in 10,000 people in Beaufort County, indicating the economic success of Washington, though many did not live in the town itself. Washington experienced explosive growth in all metrics during the first half century of its existence. Expanding population and trade allowed the town to become one of the up-and-coming cities in North Carolina (Worthy 1976:10-11). One major factor in Washington’s growth during this period was the lack of overland transportation routes. The geography of eastern North Carolina made overland travel difficult. Dense pine forests and swampy land prevented the creation of large-scale road networks. The Old Post Road was the only serviceable thoroughfare that ran from Edenton to New Bern and Wilmington. The road brought some carriage trade but could not meet the demand as the waterfront. Railroads had not been extended to the coast by this time either, which left waterborne transportation as the only efficient means of travel and trade (Van Camp 2000:7). Through the 1830s, the shipbuilding industry expanded due to increasing demand for merchant shipping. This growth led to waterfront innovations which were highly useful and publicized. Captain Hezikiah Farrow during this time built the first marine railway for hauling ships out of the water for repairs. The railway operated with success and construction of other 33 marine railways appeared soon after. The railroads, however, were not the only innovation on the waterfront. Steamships were introduced in 1831 through the construction of the steamer Edmund McNair by Lavender and Tannyhill. Such ships could easily ply the shallow and hazardous waters of the upper Tar River and began to supplant sailing vessels as the primary method of waterborne transportation (Nassif 2019:19,23). Edmund McNair was specifically built for traversing the shallow waters and regularly shuttled barrels of raw turpentine to Lavender and Tannyhill’s distilleries across from Washington (Cox 1989:45). Commerce on the Tar River increased over the following decades, and Washington continued to expand with the growth of the turpentine and lumber industries. Shipbuilding also continued as a staple of Washington’s economy; the 1850 census listed twenty-three practicing shipwrights in Beaufort County. The industry peaked in 1855-1856, however, with the panic of 1857 dropping ship production by seventeen percent. Adding to that misfortune, the negative effects of the Civil War ruined Washington, and stunted the growth that it had seen during the preceding century (Cox 1989:46). A Confederate garrison held the town at the outset of hostilities, however on March 14, 1862, the Union defeated Confederate forces at the Battle of New Bern. This Union victory forced Confederate armies in the area, including Washington’s garrison, to withdraw. On March 20, 1862, Union forces sailed from New Bern to Washington and although they were briefly stopped by a blockade, they pushed through and occupied Washington that day. Confederates launched a concerted assault against the entrenched Union forces in September of 1862, however, the attack failed. Both sides then settled in for a siege that lasted through 1863. However, a dynamic strategic situation necessitated a Union withdraw in April 1864. Soldiers ransacked the town for three days and while leaving on April 30, they set fire to the town 34 (Warren 1976:36, 44-45). The fire spread rapidly and destroyed most of the buildings on the waterfront as well as the bridge that connected Washington to the south shore landing (McIntre 1976:50). The town was utterly devastated from the war. Around one third of the buildings were destroyed in the fighting and the fire. Scarcely five hundred residents remained out of a prewar population of around thirty-five hundred. The war, although disastrous, did not hamper Washington’s ability to recover its former position as the central trading hub on the lower Tar River (Warren 1976:45). Modernization and Expansion The period of Modernization and Expansion has two distinct phases. The first is of a rapid recovery following the destruction wrought by the Civil War. The second is that of continued economic growth following reconstruction which saw the peak of Washington’s Waterfront commerce. Recovery and Rise to Prominence: 1875-1900 The town slowly recovered during the reconstruction period. The main draw for outside investment was the vast and rich pine forests around Washington. The Jamesville and Washington Lumber Company was incorporated in 1869 and soon acquired 39,680 acres of pine forest between Washington and Jamesville. In 1877 the company constructed Washington’s first terrestrial railroad which was a low gauge track that ran down Washington Street and provided transportation from the lumber yards to the port (Moore 1976:66). Industrial expansion in Washington was helped not only by terrestrial transportation improvements, but waterway improvements as well. Between 1876 and 1887 the federal 35 government spent $56,000 on dredging and opening about 60 miles of the Tar and Pamlico Rivers. This reduced shipping costs by 12 to 25 percent. It also increased commerce by $1,800,000 annually. This relatively small investment by the government paid large dividends. Commerce and the population continued to increase and in 1886 Washington was recorded as having a population of roughly 2,500 people (Wilmington Messenger 1887). By 1891 commerce in the port of Washington reached, adjusted to 2022 dollars, $148,297,846.15 annually, compared to $13,137,757.01 annually in 1876. The town flourished due to the trade provided by the centrality and upkeep of the port. The clearing of the debris filled Tar River helped immensely with this return to success that Washington experienced after the period of reconstruction (Hill 1984:9). The dredging and clearing of the Tar River combined with the capital investment in the industries of Washington paid dividends during this period. Trade from all around the East Coast and the West Indies was booming. A Morning Star excerpt from December 4, 1874, states, “Baltimore and New York steamers now touch at Washington, North Carolina, for produce.” (The Morning Star 1874). Washington had a set of regular West Indies traders around this time. The Wilmington Star in 1878 stated, “The port of Washington now has three fine schooners engaged regularly in the West Indies trade, besides others that make occasional trips” (Wilmington Star 1878). By this time, the composition of trade flowing out of Washington had changed. According to Mr. T.H.B Myers in 1884, “Prior to 1860 exports were mainly of naval stores, corn and cut lumber and after the war cotton and rice took the place of corn and cut lumber and shingles took the place of naval stores” (Litchfield 1976:233). By 1891, Washington took on an entirely different look than a town that was recently ravaged by war. The Weekly Star reported on February 27, 1891: 36 This place [Washington] has improved very much in the last two or three years. A great many wooden structures have been replaced with handsome two- and three- story brick buildings. The several industries of the town have increased its shipping trade very much. The oyster canning factories are doing a thrifty business; also, the merchants. The steamers plying between Tarboro and this place are doing a heavy business, also in freighting and passenger traffic (The Weekly Star 1891). Along with the regular manufacturing industries, fishing was also going extraordinarily well. In 1881, The Morning Star of Wilmington, North Carolina reported that the most successful fisherman on the Pamlico was Dr. Bryan who shipped over $10,000 worth of Shad, Rock, and Perch fish to northern markets (The Morning Star 1881). In two instances in 1888 and 1890, the Washington Gazette mentioned that the number of vessels on their wharves makes the town take on a “business like aspect” (Wilmington Star 1888; Weekly Star 1890). In all respects the town grew at an astonishing rate and for good reason. As the industries of the area boomed, commerce flowed out of Washington up and down the eastern seaboard. The trade coming into the Pamlico and Tar required a stop at Washington before proceeding upriver. The strategic position that made it an important target during the Civil War contributed to its rapid advance as a mercantile center of the region. The improvements and clearing of the channel helped open these opportunities for Washington and allowed trade to thrive (Hill 1984:9). Large manufacturers lined the waterfront during this period. This included the Old Dominion Steamship company, Farrows Shipyard, the J.S. Farren & Company Oyster Packers, 37 Pamlico Iron Works, Phillips Fertilizer Company, and several lumber plants and sawmills including the largest, the Kugler Lumber Company (Hill 1984:10). These large industrial waterfront plants were supplemented by many smaller businesses as well. Wholesalers and retailers of various products on First Street accompanied the industries on the waterfront. By 1890 multiple lumber mills and the railroads that supplied them sprang up across the town and included: Pamlico Cooperage Co., Havens Mill, Moss Planning Mill Co., Fowle Mill, E.M. Short Lumber Co., and Eureka Lumber Co. (Van Camp 2000:7). While the economic growth of Washington was rapid, the population still had to contend with natural disasters which sometimes had a devastating impact on the town. In 1877 heavy rain caused the river the flood which destroyed bridges, dams, and some mills along the Tar River and its tributaries (Wilmington Star 1877). Fires of various magnitudes also plagued the small town. In 1881 a large steam sawmill owned by Mr. Worden of Beaufort County burned down only a few miles from Washington (Wilmington Star 1881). In 1896 a large fire started at a wooden icehouse on the waterfront. It spread to the surrounding wooden structures, shipping sheds, and lumber yards, it took the entire police and fire department as well as a rainstorm to quench the flames only after it caused $30,000 in damage (Wilmington Messenger 1896). However, these events were only relatively minor setbacks for Washington and by the end of the century it had grown to great proportions. By the late 1890s the town was bustling. Railroads brought lumber to the mills where it was processed, loaded onto waterborne transportation, and shipped to its destination. The population rebounded as well; the census of 1900 recorded the town’s population as 4,842. This shows significant growth from the post-Civil War population of little more than five hundred people (Moore 1976:71). 38 Height of Prosperity: 1900-1914 Even though this was arguably the most prosperous time in Washington’s history, it began with a catastrophe. A devastating fire that broke out on September 13, 1900 proved impossible to control. It started at either the J.S. Farren oyster cannery building or the Brabble Eating Saloon on Water Street. The flames could not be stopped, and the fire burned all the buildings on Water, Market, and Main Streets. Even though it did not seem like it at the time, the fire proved to be a blessing in disguise. Many of the structures that were burnt were nothing more than wooden shacks with shoddily built and often injurious plank sidewalks. The fire cleared this area for future construction and new city ordinances required new buildings to be constructed of brick rather than wood and the detrimental wooden sidewalks did not return (Moore 1976:71-72). This was an inflection point for Washington, its prosperity brought further industrial investment but also innovations in methods of transportation. Railroads, invented in the early 19th century, rapidly expanded throughout the United States. In this early period of technological development, the hard to access interior of eastern North Carolina prevented expansion of the railroad into these areas. However, as the century ended, the geographic limitations that forced Washington to use mainly waterborne trade were slowly conquered. Following the introduction of the railroads in the 1870s, tracks that connected Washington to the larger eastern seaboard trade routes appeared. In 1904 the Atlantic Coast Railroad built a warehouse, a depot, and a boat landing on Gladden Street. The Washington and Vandermere railroad arrived in 1905 and serviced the Eureka Lumber Mill. The Norfolk and Southern Railroad Line laid tracks down as well and constructed a swing bridge between the north and south sides of the Pamlico in 1909 (Van Camp 2000:7). 39 Even before the early 20th century expansion, railroads played an important part in Washington’s economy. In 1880 it was reported that Washington had a weekly steamship line that went through Hyde County and the villages on the south side of the river (Wilmington Star 1880). In 1896, however, the steamer Aurora, was under the ownership of one of the railroads which removed it from the Hyde County, south shore village line schedule (Wilmington Messenger 1896). While these excerpts do not provide context for this move to discontinue that line of trade, the railroads controlled their rail lines and steamers on the river. They also had the power to discontinue service, possibly impacting Washington’s waterborne commerce. The railroads not only provided a different route of transportation but also a significant portion of the investments that went into developing Washington’s infrastructure. In 1893 the Atlantic Coast Line was investing in a grain elevator and a water depot as well as two fast steamers that would run in conjunction with their rail lines down the river (Wilmington Messenger 1893). While this relationship was mutually beneficial during this time, by the early 20th century the railroads would begin to supplant waterfront commerce as the primary method of transportation. Despite this inevitability, Washington continued to thrive in the first decade of the 20th century. By 1911 Washington had doubled in size to a population of roughly 10,000. Waterfront trade was sizeable, barges imported coal, fertilizer, merchandise, salt, cement, and hardware, while exporting lumber, shingles, cotton, and agricultural products (Hill 1986:11). One industry that the railroads could not access was that of oyster harvesting. The harvesting of oysters in the Pamlico did not become important until 1889 when the Chesapeake was overharvested, and those oyster fishers moved down to North Carolina to new grounds. However, the practice of non-North Carolinians harvesting oysters ended when the governor prohibited nonresidents from the practice. Oystering became more and more lucrative over the next decade and production peaked in 1902 40 with the harvesting of over 5.5 million pounds of oysters. However, by 1918 the yield had decreased to only a fraction of that number due to over-dredging and the failure of oyster culturing in the Pamlico. Through this brief but euphoric time, railroads and steamers worked side by side to transport trade goods and the oyster industry was reaching its peak. This honeymoon period of expansion, however, would not last. World events outside of Washington’s control as well as some that were in Washington’s control caused the demise of the town’s waterfront commerce industry (Kramer 1996:6-9). Contraction and Decline Washington’s period of Contraction and Decline has two distinct phases. A period of steady economic decline followed the prosperous first decade of the 20th century. Global, regional, and technological factors precipitated this decrease in commerce. The second phase of waterfront transformation saw the final vestiges of the industrial waterfront remade into a recreational and tourist-oriented waterfront. Steady Decline: 1914-1945 This rapid increase in maritime and terrestrial industry caused some growing pains for Washington by the end of the 1910s. Even though the past couple of decades had seen the maritime and railroad industries grow side by side, railroads began to outcompete their commercial neighbors. While this was a gradual process, waterborne trade was slowly becoming unprofitable and impractical (Litchfield 1976:234). While this occurred, the waterfront overcompensated by creating many new piers. During this time, the wharf of the waterfront was built up to such an extent that there was little room for further growth. The number of piers continued to expand 41 between 1911 and 1918. A United States Army Corps of Engineers report from 1918 stated that there were fifty piers in Washington and the main business portion of town, between the bridge and Kuglar Lumber Company, was “badly congested with little opportunity for terminal development” (United States Army Corps of Engineers [USACE] 1918:590-591). Creating new piers to keep up with demand can be a successful business move, however, building the amount that creates congestion only serves to stifle the appeal of the port. The congestion of the area as well as the introduction of the railroads contributed to the decreased rate of waterborne transportation of goods. This is especially apparent by comments in some of USACE reports. For instance, in 1918 it was stated that “The decrease in timber was due to the fact that at many water points it has already been cut and mill men are compelled to get more of their timber by rail (USACE 1918:591). Though steamboats continued to move and trade upriver, the railroads and eventually automobiles combined with the creation of road systems, to degrade the supremacy of Washington’s waterborne trade. While the waterfront industries declined, the shipbuilding industry suffered the same fate (Nassif 2019:35). Shipbuilding, which once played a large part in the income of the town, began to wane. This was mainly due to the changing times, shifting methods of construction, and demand for different types of vessels. Washington was geared toward the construction of wooden ships. Once the Civil War ended and the transportation revolution began, there was increasingly lower demand for wooden hulled ships. Though repairs and hauling of vessels remained profitable, the number of ships built vastly decreased with the drop in demand coupled with the cessation of the lucrative West Indies trade at the turn of the century. However, shipbuilding did struggle on in Washington through the decades. In the 1940s a small fleet of shrimp fishing boats was constructed for use in the Gulf of Mexico. During World War II the Gehagen Construction 42 Company built thirty oil barges, using a previously inactive shipyard (Hill 1984:12). Even with these sporadic orders for ships, an industry which was once a staple of the town’s economy all but vanished. There was little demand for the vessels that Washington could provide. The size of the town and the lack of any real financial support prevented it from pivoting to other methods of ship construction (Loy and Worthy 1976:127). The Great Depression ended the happy decade of the roaring twenties and Washington was affected as badly as other towns across the United States. Out of the three banks in the town, two closed, and all the customers who used to shop at main street disappeared (Squires 1976:128). The thirties were a bad decade for the country and for Washington. Though the United States was recovering by the late 1930s and early 1940s, the damage to Washington had largely been done. By the 1940s most of the lumber mills of the area had closed (Van Camp 2000:8). Young men also volunteered or were drafted for World War II and the town even faced a shortage of teachers along with the many young men who enlisted in the armed forces who otherwise might have sought manufacturing jobs (Glover and Jones 1976:151). Manufacturing in Washington was not the only industry in the area that declined either. The oyster industry sharply decreased in productivity. From its peak production of over 5 million pounds of oysters in 1902, the following years showed declining numbers – only six years later around 4 million pounds were harvested. By the 1920s and early 1930s only around 1 million pounds were being harvested annually. In 1940 the numbers hit an all-time low at just under 700,000 pounds. This steady decline may have been due to many factors, however, the production or the demand, or both for Pamlico oysters declined and this undoubtedly adversely effected the economy of Washington (Kramer 1996:9). 43 Waterfront Transformation: 1945-1973 When the war ended in 1945, the closing of lumber mills and businesses continued. In 1956 the Eureka Lumber Mill, one of the largest of the town was bought, sold, and sat idle until 1975 when most of the machinery was removed (Van Camp 2000:20). Advances in shipping and cargo transportation that developed during and right after the war essentially made regional small ports such as Washington obsolete. The invention of the forklift in 1950 led to the creation of wooden pallets that could hold multiple boxes or barrels of goods. This contrasts with the age- old method of having longshoremen haul cargo out by hand. Even though this invention on the surface seemed like a boon to small ports due to the increase of efficiency, it called for their immediate restructuring. Paved, concrete quays were required for the successful transfer of goods using a forklift. The warehouses as well needed improvement to accommodate for the heights that forklifts could reach. This meant that the usual low-level ceilings of warehouses needed to be raised to increase the storage space (Jackson 1983:151-153). Many small ports such as Washington had mostly wooden and uneven quays as well as low vaulted warehouses and might not have been able to accommodate new equipment. This innovation, however, could be worked around and solutions figured out if given the time and funding. Containerization developed in the 1950s, however, could not be stopped and was the final nail on the coffin of the old port system. It became apparent to port authorities that to increase trade volume, the containerization that began to develop in the Second World War needed to be adopted. The old port systems were generally too worn out and small to accommodate this last piece of the shipping revolution (Jackson 1983:152-155). As the world moved closer to the present day where containers are the main method of seaborne transportation, small ports like Washington no longer served a commercial purpose. 44 The decline in the town’s main industries caused a diversification of the economy during this time as well. A 1966 report stated that small industries such as a shirt manufacturer, yarn mill, and furniture plant, as well as various regional products such as yarn, meat, flour, fertilizer, feed, lumber, and insecticides, were produced in Washington. This diversification in industry, however, did nothing to prevent the eventual demise of the waterfront. Despite improvements that were made throughout the decades, the city was susceptible to storm surges due to the low seawall. In the early 1970s around 45 acres of the waterfront generally west of market street were demolished and filled and on it, Stewart Parkway was created. The area was cleared of abandoned warehouses, pier pilings, and dilapidated buildings were removed, a 1900-foot steel bulkhead was created and sand from the river was pumped in to complete the project (Hill 1984:13-14). The Old Colonial Ice Co. and the old mill behind the Louise Hotel were removed, while Pamlico Chemical Co., Atlantic Seaboard Railroad, and Gerard’s Piston and Ring Company all found new locations; the project was completed in 1973 (Cochran 1976:515). While the seawall provides a location for local pleasure craft to dock, the historic industrial waterfront has all but vanished, and may only be seen through sub surface and sonar surveys of the filled in land. Conclusion The port town of Washington, North Carolina was an integral facet of the regional trading network from its inception through the 20th century. The expansive pine forests of eastern North Carolina provided vast lumber supplies and the agricultural sector provided products such as corn and cotton. The swampy and low-lying geography of the region necessitated waterborne transportation. However, by the turn of the 20th century, the monopoly that waterborne trade had 45 on commerce was slowly withering away. Innovations in transportation like the railroad and automobiles outcompeted the waterfront and eventually made the waterborne trade obsolete. By the mid-20th century there was little to no waterfront industry to speak of, and the warehouses, wharves, and piers sat derelict. In 1973 the town decided to pivot away from the rotting industrial area, filled in the old piers, and created a roughly 45-acre area known as Stewart Parkway as well as restaurants and tourist attractions now sit. Local pleasure craft now ply the waters around Washington rather than the fleets of trading vessels of days past. 46 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter will discuss the process of creating a 3D reconstruction of Washington’s waterfront. It provides a discussion of the overall workflow, technical and conceptual issues, and efforts to ensure quality control. Furthermore, it gives an outline to the practical foundation in which this thesis uses to frame the research. The historic port of Washington has undergone immense changes since the end of the Civil War. Historical data collection, waterfront surveys, and 3D reconstructions can help archaeologists and historians recreate the once bustling commercial hub of the Tar-Pamlico Region. However, these facts must be presented in a comprehensive and cohesive manner to be accurately analyzed. To correctly frame this historical data, however, extensive research was also conducted to place the evolution of Washington’s waterfront within the bounds of the geographic, economic, and historic port development. Historical research was the primary method for collecting data on the historic waterfront. Secondary sources were integral during the initial stages of research to gather data and obtain a general historical context in which Washington grew and declined. Many of these sources, however, failed to satisfactorily describe the driving forces behind the expansion and dissolution of commerce on the waterfront. Primary sources were then used to fill in the gaps left by secondary historical sources. Included in this is analysis of commercial and economic data pertaining to Washington and the Pamlico River between the years 1876 and 1972. This provides a solid foundation of raw data that is analyzed in conjunction with the 3D reconstruction of the town. The waterfront’s commercial success and decline is tracked through historical data and visualized using nine Sanborn fire insurance maps made between 1885 and 1943. These maps were combined into composite images and imported into Rhino 7 to create a 3D reconstruction of the waterfront over time. The historical data and visualization combine to provide a holistic view of the changes to Washington’s waterfront at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. Archaeological data in the form of side scan sonar imagery of the current waterfront is used in this process as well. This data increases the accuracy of the reconstruction and confirms the location of historical structures that appear on the Sanborn Maps. The methodology described in this chapter allows for a multi-dimensional approach for the historical study of ports. Imbuing historical data into a 3D visualization of Washington’s evolution allows for a data driven and accurate analysis of the process and has the potential for application to wider studies. Theoretical Foundation As mentioned in Chapter 2, to create a suitable framework for this research, varying theories on the development of ports were consulted. The differing theories of port development fall into three distinct categories: Historical and Morphological; Geographic and Spatial; and Historical and Geographic. The first two theorical approaches are vastly different from one another and either use mainly historical data or geographic data to analyze the development of ports. The third theory, however, uses a combination of both these approaches in an attempt to create a more unified and holistic approach to evaluate the evolution of ports. The historical approach was mainly conveyed through the work of Gordan Jackson in his book The History and Archaeology of Ports (1983). This book describes the evolution of British ports through multiple eras from the 16th century through the present day. While spatial and 48 economic descriptions of areas and production is present, the main argument lies with larger historical trends and how ports either managed or fell victim to those trends. Even though Jackson’s book describes British ports, the parallels to American ports, especially during the late 19th and early 20th century, are apparent. This theoretical approach provides an overview of the larger historical forces that help to frame the rest of this thesis. The second theoretical approach focuses on the geographic position of a port system, its connectivity to the hinterland through various methods of transportation, and its relationship to the wider regional, national, and international economies. This approach is primarily argued through the work of geographers B.S. Hoyle and D. Hilling in their book Seaport Systems and Spatial Change: Technology, Industry, and Development Strategies (1984). This theoretical argument forms the foundation for framing Washington’s port within the economic and commercial region of the Pamlico Sound, as well as the wider Mid-Atlantic region. . The final theoretical perspective explored in this thesis is the Historical Geographic approach. Editors Tapio Bergholm, Lewis R. Fischer, and M. Elisabeth Tonizzi’s exemplify this in their book Making Global and Local Connections: Historical Perspectives on Ports (2007). This argument combines the previous two approaches into a holistic theory that connects historical economic and commercial statistics to provide an overarching analysis of port systems and the processes that propelled their development. This theoretical approach will be an integral facet in the framework of the analysis of the historical data as well as the 3D modelling component of this thesis. To analyze all aspects of the commercial and historic data for Washington, its waterfront needs to be connected to the wider system of change that are happening in the world at those specific times. 49 All of the theoretical perspectives discussed help to frame the arguments and assertions made later in this thesis. They tie Washington’s industrial waterfront to economic and technological developments happening in the hinterland to the changes in waterfront trade. This is the framework in which the analysis of the data will take place. Historical Data Collection The first component of creating an accurate reconstruction of the port of Washington is the gathering of historical data. This process took the form of multiple steps. To gather general background information on Washington and the surrounding region during the past two centuries, secondary historical texts were consulted. Primary source historical data was also consulted to ascertain specific social and economic data points on Washington’s development. These two main sources of data will then be used later to analyze the evolution of Washington’s industrial waterfront. Secondary Sources Secondary historical sources were critical in the beginning phases of research which provided background information on Washington’s position within the Pamlico region’s larger history. The primary work consulted for Washington’s history is Pauline Worthy and Ursula Loy’s edited book Washington and the Pamlico (1976). This is a collection of essays written on different periods of Washington’s history from its founding up through the 1970s. Louis Van Camp’s book Washington, North Carolina (2000) was used for more historical knowledge as well as a source for historical photographs. 50 Many theses originating from East Carolina University were also studied for general economic data of Washington. James Cox’s “The Pamlico-Tar River and Its Role in the Development of Eastern North Carolina” (1989), Alicia Kramer’s “The Pamlico Oyster, Crab, and Shrimp Industries: Early 20th Century” (1996), and Christopher McCabe’s “The Development and Decline of Tar-Pamlico River Maritime Commerce and Its Impact upon Regional Settlement Patterns” (2007) were particularly useful in gathering data related to the commercial trends of Washington. Will Nassif’s “Reconstructing the Waterfront: An Historical and Archaeological Reconstruction of the Nineteenth Century Port of Washington, NC” (2020) was integral to the creation of this thesis and many economic trends that were discovered in his thesis are used as a foundation and will be expanded on in this thesis. Other documents such as Michael Hill’s “Historical Research Report: The Waterfront Area of Washington, North Carolina” (1984) proved vital for specific knowledge on the history of Washington’s waterfront. Books, theses, historical reports, and newspaper articles were all used to gain knowledge on the processes and function of Washington’s waterfront. However, exact historical data, particularly the economic and commercial history of the waterfront, was determined through consultation of primary source documents. Primary Sources While secondary sources provided background historical and economic data, the investigation of primary source documents was necessary to gain an in depth understanding of the economic system of Washington’s industrial waterfront. Copies of articles written for newspapers from the 1880s to 1910s, such as The Morning Star, The Wilmington Messenger, The Wilmington Star, and The Weekly Star, were used extensively during the historical data 51 collection process. These articles provided a starting point for finding primary sources in which to gather more information. They also offer a glimpse into how Washington and its burgeoning industry was perceived by other towns in its vicinity. However, exact economic, commercial, and waterway maintenance data was provided by the USACE reports from the years of 1876 through 1972. These reports are held in ECU’s Program in Maritime Studies collections and searched for specific data on Washington. Stored on 16-millimeter film reels, these are organized annually and typically divided into multiple component parts. These reports include indexes and tables of content which made locating the necessary data considerably less troublesome than it may first appear. However, many times the table of contents left out page number information for Washington, necessitating the investigation of each individual component part. The reports provided two main pieces of information including general information on Washington. The first type of information is data on dredging and clearing operations of the Tar and Pamlico River at Washington’s waterfront. This data set also includes the cost of river improvement and maintenance as well as the estimated continued annual cost of the project. Amounts of material removed from the river and the overall state of the river and the project are also outlined in this section of the repot. The report gives an estimated timeline for the completion of the project as well as updates on the state of river improvement and maintenance. An example of this type of information is given below in Figure 3 which is from page 267 of the 1900 USACE Annual Report. The second data set offered by these reports are detailed commercial statistics including itemized lists of import and export tonnage, location of shipment destination, and the number and types of vessels that came and went from Washington each year. An example of this type of 52 information from Page 5 of the 1900 USACE Report is given below in Figure 4. This data specifically will be crucial in the later stages of this thesis. Once the 3D reconstruction is complete, this information will be imbued into the model along with other methods mentioned below to give the reader a clear understanding of the transformation of Washington’s waterfront. FIGURE 3: Page 267 of the 1900 USACE Annual Report, image by author (USACE 1900:267). 53 FIGURE 4: Page 1800 of the 1900 USACE Annual Report, image by author (USACE 1900:1800). Waterfront Reconstruction Workflow Once the theoretical framework was established, and the historical data collected, the next step in the process was to create a workflow for the 3D reconstruction of Washington’s Waterfront. This workflow has taken a few different forms and has been modified from its original form laid out in the prospectus of this thesis. This workflow is in two stages, the creation of the photoshop Sanborn composite images and the 3D modelling of those images in Rhino 7. 54 Map Preparation (Photoshop) The first major step in the reconstruction of Washington’s waterfront was the creation of composite Sanborn maps for all the years studied in this thesis. These map years were the only ones readily available to the author and include: 1885, 1891, 1896, 1901, 1904, 1911, 1916, 1924, and 1943. Despite the relatively limited dataset, these represent a good sample size to illustrate the commercial decline of Washington’s Waterfront. The early years represent the reconstruction and rise to prominence era, the maps around the turn of the century represent the height of Washington’s economic prosperity, while the last few maps highlight the economic decline. All Washington Sanborn maps were made of multiple parts with each part showing a detailed view of 2 to4 city blocks. These individual parts needed to be stitched together in Adobe Photoshop to create the composite maps of each year analyzed. One of the errors to consider during this research is that none of the individual Sanborn maps, and consequently the composites, are perfect. Many have relatively small margins of error, of 1 to5 percent, however, analysis indicated that as Washington grew and the maps became more complex, the margin of error increased. This could result from different methods or tools used by the surveyors, different individuals surveying different parts of the map, and potential errors in processing. The maps were stitched together as close as possible but inevitably problems arose where they are not perfectly aligned. All margins of error were between 1 and5 percent, with the later maps being within that higher range. An example of the start of the composite map creation process is given in Figure 5. 55 FIGURE 5: Screenshot of composite map creation process, taken by author (Courtesy of Sanborn Insurance Maps 1885). The alignment process began with the importation of the Sanborn map components for the specific year being worked on. This process was done one year at a time. Once the first map was inserted, the next map could be placed, and the process could continue. However, due to the white margins on each side of each map, all other maps had to have their transparency reduced to 50 percent so that they could be aligned with the street network of the first map. Even though the transparency was drastically reduced, the 50 percent level was a good medium between being able to effectively align the streets and blocks and still being able to see 56 the map. An important step after the alignment of the maps was to flatten the image. This creates a single image that removes layers. The integration of the layers into the background image helps reduce the file size of the final product. This process is done for each map until the composite map is completed. The white edges of the map were cropped out, as this also helps with computer memory and decreasing file size. Importing all the images at once was also tested, putting them in their general spot, then fitting them together one by one and flattening the image at the end. However, this process did not improve the time spent creating the maps and made it slightly confusing to fit the maps together due to the large amount of information on the screen. The composite map of Washington for 1885 provides an example of a completed, cropped, map and is provided in Figure 6. One thing to note is that Sanborn maps are typically in color, however, these maps were originally scanned into the computer before the creation of this thesis and have no color. The colors on typical Sanborn maps denote various types of materials used in the construction of those buildings such as brick or concrete. The types of construction methods are also used to denoted by the use of colors such as frame or iron building. This research, however, is not focused on the façade or the architecture of those structures. This study only relies on the type of building such as dwelling or warehouse to be completed, so the color coded map and map key are not necessary to the successful completion of this thesis. The maps were then exported to a dedicated file folder, labelled based on the date, and saved as PDF files which are compatible with Rhino 7. The map creation process using these completed, composite Sanborn map images is discussed in the next section. 57 FIGURE 6: Completed 1885 Sanborn Composite Map, by author (Sanborn Insurance Maps 1885). 58 Model Creation (Rhino 7) Once the composite maps were completed, they were imported into Rhino 7 for model creation. Rhino 7 is a 3D modelling software by McNeel that is used in many different industries from design to engineering. However, for this thesis, it was used to recreate the waterfront of Washington, North Carolina in a virtual space. Rhino 7 was chosen because of its intuitive nature, the author and advisor’s familiarity to the system, and its easy integration into this study. This thesis intends to recreate Washington’s waterfront with building and industry comparisons of varying colors in mind to analyze the waterfront industries. Once the nine composite maps of Washington were created, they were then imported into Rhino 7. An important factor to consider when using Rhino 7 is that one must be sure to work in layers or one risks the project becoming confusing and unworkable. Each map was imported into its own layer so at the beginning of the project, there were nine layers, one for each year. Once this was completed, the author had to decide from which layer to begin modelling. One option was to start from the year 1885, the first Sanborn map available, and work chronologically through the years until reaching the last Sanborn map available. This option required more work as buildings are added to the maps each year and required modelling as the maps grew and changed. However, the reconstruction based on the 1885 map would be more accurate because the margin of error is less than 1 foot compared to around 10 feet for one of the sections of the 1943 map. The second option was to start at 1943 and move down the years until 1885. This was seen as possibly more efficient as most buildings are placed on the 1943 map and could be removed or moved without having to completely recreate them each year. However, it is less accurate as 1943 is the most inaccurate Sanborn map with a large margin of error and due to the incorrect scale on one of its component parts, its composite map is poorly stitched together. Due 59 to these factors, the author elected to begin with 1885 and move up chronologically to 1943. One important aspect to note is that since layers can be duplicated in Rhino 7, while buildings additions were required every year, there was no need to completely recreate the waterfront for every year. Another important component of the 3D reconstruction was the fact that only the waterfront and all buildings south of Main Street would be reconstructed. Most buildings north of Main Street are either residential structures or general town businesses like saloons or grocers. These types of buildings are not the focus of this thesis and while they can help track town growth regarding population, that information is already provided through previous historical research. Once these general ideas had been established, the parameters of the Rhino 7 scene had to be set. These parameters included setting the scale and the extent of the grid system. The scale used in this Rhino reconstruction is in feet with one foot for every minor grid line. This was chosen because each Sanborn map’s scales are in feet. This was changed by going into file>properties>grid and changing the minor grid line spacing to 1 foot. Major lines were set at every five feet. The absolute tolerance was also kept at the default .0001 feet. The grid line count was set at 5000 feet because that length was enough to fit every one of the maps. The next step is the importation of each of the composite maps into their own layers. These layers also included sublayers, but these will be discussed further on in this chapter. Once completed, the author began at the 1885 map and outlined the waterfront and the city blocks. This was done with the hope of being able to snap the other maps to the positions of those blocks and make the entire reconstruction process as precise as possible. An example of this step is shown in Figure 7. Once the block and waterfront outlines were created, other maps were 60 selected in chronological order to determine if their snapping on top of the initial layer worked. It was found out that the 1891 and 1896 maps fit well onto the 1885 map, however, in the following years discrepancies resulting from surveying, scaling, and Photoshop errors made this strategy ineffective. FIGURE 7: Screenshot taken by author of the outlined waterfront and blocks of the 1885 Washington Sanborn Map (Sanborn Insurance Map 1885). 61 Sanborn map terminology also had to be determined to accurately reconstruct and analyze the waterfront. Sanborn included its own set of symbology, abbreviations, and terminology used to distinguish different types of structures. Luckily many of the larger companies and structures were fully spelled out and abbreviations such as ‘dwg’ were easily deduced to mean dwelling. Regardless, a key to the Sanborn maps is included in Appendix A and can be used for each year from 1885 to 1943. Another important element to consider before the modelling could begin was the height of buildings. The Sanborn maps provides the number of stories of the buildings, but exact heights are not included. This issue was solved by measuring the height of a story of the Eller House on the East Carolina University Campus. Being built in 1925, it serves as a good representation of the height of stories for buildings during the time around the creation of the Sanborn Maps. Using a tape measure, one story was measured at 10 feet. That has been applied to the modelling process and buildings of one story are 10 feet high, 2 stories are 20 feet high, and so on. Once all these factors had been set, the actual modelling of structures began. Beginning with the 1885 map, the author created a 3D model of all the labelled buildings located south of Main Street. This was done either by using the draw rectangle or polyline function, then using the extrude curve command with the solid option and then typing in the height of the building. After making some adjustments, the author worked with seven different sublayers for each type of structure and each sublayer had its own color to differentiate it from the others. The Agriculture and Fishing layer represents buildings related to the capture, sale, and processing of aquatic fauna and the sale or processing of agriculture such as tobacco or cotton. The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine layer represents structures related to the sale or processing of those 62 goods, which were a large part of Washington’s waterfront economy. The Warehouse layer is for any general warehouses which will help visualize the volume of goods flowing through Washington during those years. Transport represents any structure related to modes of transportation including stables, boathouses, railroad houses, and railroad tracks. The Shipyard layer shows all the shipyards on the waterfront and helps to assess the productivity of the shipping industry. The Foundry and Machine Shops layer represents businesses associated with the repair and manufacture of machinery and hardware. The most general layer, Town Buildings, represents all buildings not associated with waterfront business. This includes dwellings, saloons, general offices, grocers, and other buildings that are not directly related to determining the causes of decline in Washington’s waterfront industries. These buildings were modelled because they fill in the background growth of the city, but they are not used to directly measure the commercial success of the waterfront. These structure types were grouped together because an initial trial of creating layers for each type of building led to the map becoming a convoluted mess of colors where the important structures of the waterfront were drowned out by the less important general town buildings. This created a problem with identification and classification of the waterfront structures where an effective analysis would have been impossible. These categories represent the largest industries of the historic port of Washington. They are effectively grouped together, and an analysis of each classification’s commercial output is completed later in this thesis. An example of the completed 1885 map and key with the described layers is given below in Figures 8 and 9. 63 FIGURE 8: A view of the 1885 Reconstructed Washington waterfront looking North across the Tar River (Created by author, 2021). FIGURE 9: Key for the Washington waterfront Reconstruction layers (Created by author, 2021). Once the layers were set and the 3D modelling of the buildings completed, the design process began. Colors for the buildings were changed multiple times until the right combination was found. The waterfront for all the maps was also traced and duplicated. The duplicate layer was renamed “City Background” which provided a general backdrop for the buildings once the 64 Sanborn map was turned off. The waterfront was modelled by extruding the waterfront layer down five feet. Five feet was chosen as a round number for the distance between the water and the current height of the waterfront. Although the number is arbitrary, it is added strictly for the visual representation of the 3D model and has no bearing on the analysis of the historical waterfront. Text was then added to help orient the reader into the 3D space, as it may be quite confusing if one has not previously observed the area in question. Labels for the Pamlico Sound were inserted and colored blue. Text labelled northwest, center, and southeast were inserted to denote which area of the city the reader is looking. Three blocks, one colored green for northwest, yellow for the center, and orange for southeast were inserted as well. This was done to provide a color-coded frame of reference. There is also a small overlap for each box to help find the ending and beginning of the next map. These were put into place because of the length of the city necessitated the author to divide each 3D modelled map into these three sections. These three sections are cropped in the results chapter and stacked on top of each other as shown below. It is meant to be viewed looking at the northwest then to the center and finally to the southeast. This also is done to give the most detailed view of the waterfront. The size and density of the structures was also important to portray as they represent the growth and decline of the waterfront. The sonar data was also inserted into the 1943 map (to be discussed below). Once the modelling and the design process was complete, the data was exported using view>capture to file>save file to designated folder. The exported files were then imported into photoshop, and each map was cropped into the three sections. An example of a before and after image of a cropped map is shown below in Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13. 65 FIGURE 10: Uncropped image of the finalized 1885 map (Created by the author, 2022). FIGURE 11: Cropped northwest side of the finalized 1885 map (Created by the author, 2022). FIGURE 12: Cropped center view of the finalized 1885 map (Created by author, 2022). FIGURE 13: Cropped east side of the finalized 1885 map (Created by author, 2022). These reconstructions were later augmented with tables of the economic data for each industry. Prior to this a table was added to interpret the labels and colors for each industry that 66 include the total tonnage production and area in square feet covered by each. An example of this is given below in Table 1. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Warehouses Transport Shipyards Town Buildings Machine Shops/Foundry Merchandise/Misc. Total TABLE 1: Table for each year showing the total tonnage produced and the area in square feet covered by each industry (Created by author, 2022). In Chapter 5, each industry is described individually with all the goods produced during a particular year. These total tonnage amounts were further divided and described using Table 2 below. The Merchandise/Miscellaneous industry does not appear on the map because there were no clear buildings for that industry. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products Veg/Grain/Starch Ag and Fishing Livestock Fisheries Harvest Other Total Lumber/Timber/Logs Shingles Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin Other Total Machinery Iron Goods Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware Other Total Merchandise Raw Materials Construction Materials Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products Oil Products Other Total TABLE 2: Breakdown of the production for each industry (Created by author, 2022). 67 This breakdown shows a standardized grouping for each industry so that the actual composition of each can be interpreted in the analysis chapter. The tons shown in the tables above represent the total amount of commercial activity for each industry including production and shipment. Table 3 below shows the final table used for each year; it shows the federally expended funds and the total commerce for each year in both the years dollar amount and a standardized 2022-dollar value. 1896/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) Total Commerce TABLE 3: Shows the federally expended value and the total commercial value of goods for each year (Created by author 2022). The methods described in this section incorporates data from the nine Sanborn maps to create a time progression synchronic map of the growth and decline of Washington’s Waterfront in Chapter 5. These results are used to analyze the diachronic changes of the waterfront in the Chapter 6. Archaeological Data Collection Archaeological data is used in conjunction with the 3D reconstructions of Washington’s waterfront. In the spring of 2021, sonar data of the riverbed at the existing waterfront was collected. Using an EdgeTech 4125 side scan sonar running at both 400 and 900 Hertz, recorded data from north of the current bridge over the Tar River at Washington, to the southern tip of the Old Waterfront where the remains of the train trestle are now located. Once collected, the data was processed using SonarWiz software. Initially the lines were bottom tracked using both manual and automatic features. The contrast of the lines was then adjusted using the Empirical Gain Normalization (EGN) feature, which uses overlapping layers of sonar lines to average the 68 data in each set of lines and create a clearer, and more illuminating image. This data, both with and without a map of Washington attached, was then exported into photoshop as a .TIF file, converted into a .JPEG file, and then imported as a layer into Rhino 7. This layer was imported below the 1943 layer so that the map attached was not visible but also because the 1943 map and its recorded waterfront is the closest map available to the archaeological record recorded using the side scan sonar. Figure 14 shows the most recent waterfront scans, from 2021, superimposed on the 1943 waterfront reconstruction. The sonar data is a picture of the riverbed with color variations denoting changes in height of structures or anomalies. The left side of the data, close to the large lumber mill, does not reveal apparent in situ structural remains. However, the right side of the image is of particular interest. The large dark spot roughly in the middle are the pilings for the existing bridge that crosses the Tar River. Past the bridge to the right is the current waterfront which is the slightly darker line that is extending out further out into the Pamlico River than the reconstructed buildings. The current waterfront in front of the reconstructed buildings and the waterfront further to the right, near the lumber mill, are examined further in the analysis chapter. The large blank spot in the sonar data towards the right of the map is the location of a current tidal pond and terrestrial development which was not able to be scanned by the sonar. This will determine if any in situ archaeological remains are visible and are compared or possibly identified using the reconstruction. The use of this archaeological data helps to determine the locations of future areas of archaeological interest. The ability to predict locations where structures may be located without the need for intrusive methods of discovery is one of the important applications of this methodology. 69 FIGURE 14: Sidescan Sonar Data overlayed onto the 1943 Washington Reconstruction (Created by author, 2022). Analysis Methods Chapter 6 uses the historical data and reconstructions outlined in Chapter 5 to draw conclusions about the history of Washington’s waterfront. Commerce is analyzed first using collated production tonnage data. Each industry that has production values are then analyzed in detail. The breakdown tables described above were used to analyze the Agriculture and Fishing industry, the Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry, the Foundry and Machine Shops industry, and the Merchandise and Miscellaneous industries individually. 70 The sonar data is examined further with the Agriculture and Fishing industry and the Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry. This is done because these two industries are emblematic of the historic waterfront. In situ archaeological remains or possible locations for further exploration may become apparent when combining the reconstructions with the sonar data. Once these data points are analyzed, total commercial production tonnage is compared with the square footage for each year to determine if there were any correlations between the two. Total commerce and river improvement is analyzed afterwards to determine if there are any connections between the two values. Conclusions on the development of the waterfront are then drawn from the multiple analyses. 71 CHAPTER 5: MODELLING WASHINGTON’S ECONOMIC CHANGE, A YEAR-BY-YEAR SYNOPSIS Introduction This chapter discusses the results of the research conducted in this study. The Sanborn map for each year studied through the course of this thesis (1885, 1891, 1896, 1901, 1904, 1911, 1916, 1924, and 1943, sequentially) is examined using 3D models as well as the historical data gathered from the USACE reports. The historical data from the reports is embedded within the 3D models through tables that list the tonnage and square footage of each layer. Tables with federally expended funds for the Pamlico River improvement, total river commerce, and ship travel data are also included. Scans of the USACE scanned pages from the various reports are included as Appendix A. All these fragments of economic data are integral to understanding the entire story of Washington’s waterfront advance and decline. Correlation or divergence between these values may shed further insight into the waterfront’s history. While the values described in this chapter are offered in the form of a synchronic (snapshot in time) approach, the next chapter presents a diachronic analysis of waterfront change. In this chapter, each year listed has the 3D reconstructed view of Washington’s waterfront which visualizes the growth and contraction of industries on the waterfront. Tables containing historical data are used, as previously mentioned, to contextualize the changes to the waterfront. Descriptions further enhance and connect the historical data to the visualization. The goal is for each one of these components to come together to provide a holistic view of the visual and economic changes of Washington’s waterfront. The description for each year analyzed commences with a short introduction followed by images of the waterfront reconstruction. Each industry is differentiated by color which is labelled and contextualized through the tables located underneath the images of the reconstruction. Each image for each year was taken at the exact same angle to ensure a continuous frame of reference. Due to the size constraints of the printed pages appearing in this thesis, each reconstructed waterfront was divided into three parts, a view of the northwest of the waterfront, one of the center view, and one of the southeast view. To correctly frame the viewer, they are ‘standing’ in the middle of the Pamlico River looking due northeast towards Washington’s waterfront. An orientation map illustrates this view below in Figure 15. Each visualization is meant to be viewed linearly, from northwest to southeast or vice versa, which will help create a continual image and frame of reference when compared to the other visualizations. FIGURE 15: Visual context of the location of Washington on the Pamlico River and where the viewer is looking from in the direction of the waterfront. (Adapted from Google Earth, with text and arrow added by author.) 73 1885 Below is the reconstruction of the 1885 Washington waterfront (Figure 16). This was the least developed of all the years researched. Even though this is the case, a variety of industries appear which will become the foundation of Washington’s economic future as the years progress. To understand the key, the industry colors in Table 1 correlate the corresponding industry on the 3D reconstruction. FIGURE 16: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1885, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. Limited (Created by author, 2022). 74 Table 4 below denotes the color for each industry as well as the amount of goods produced and the space on the waterfront that each industry occupied. Layer Color Amount Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 27,054 Cotton Bales 13,116.2 5,353 Rice Barrels 8,115 Potatoes Lumber 94,686 Feet 53,906.5 Shingles 917,029 Shingles Turpentine 4,732 Barrels Warehouses - 57,659.6 Transport - 29,683.4 Shipyards - 9,455.5 Town Buildings - 122,903.7 Machine Shops/Foundry - 0 Merchandise/Misc. 9,552,697 - Total 10,609,656 286,724.9 TABLE 4: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1885 (USACE 1885:1041-1042). The commercial statistics for 1885 provide a baseline for the commercial goods that Washington produced during this period. One important factor to note is that these statistics only come from the Clyde and Old Dominion Steamship companies. While there was undoubtably lower-level trade coming through the town that did not involve either of those companies, there are no statistics for that volume of commerce (USACE 1885:1042). The Agriculture and Fishing industry included bales of cotton, barrels of rice, and potatoes. The Lumber, Shingles and Turpentine industry was significant in 1885 and included the manufacturing of shingles, barrels of naval stores, and feet of lumber. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods also made up a large percentage of production (USACE 1885:1042). The Town Building layers, while not having any explicit economic impact, represents general town growth or decline and will be further discernable as the chapter progresses. Transportation includes stables, railroad junctions, and railroad lines. Warehouses held an assortment of goods and merchandise which was not specified on the Sanborn maps. Machine Shops and Foundries were not located on the map and did not explicitly produce any goods. Since there was no 75 mention of the use of shipyards as well, no data was included in the Shipyards layer. The Merchandise layer includes a cumulative number for various, unspecified merchandise that Washington produced. No cumulative commerce numbers are available (USACE 1885:1041- 1042). Table 5 shows the breakdown of goods for each industry and the standardized weight in tons that each produced. The tonnage was determined with a few assumptions; that a bale of cotton weighed the standard 480 pounds (U.S. Cotton Bale Dimensions 2022), a standard rice barrel weighed 148 pounds (United States Department of Agriculture 1904:83), and a standard 8 ounce potato (Nunn and Qian 2009:599), a standard 250-pound barrel of naval stores (Vance 1896), shingles of white pine in 20 per bundle at 40 pounds per bundle(Sokol 2021) at 40 pounds per bundle (Luttrell 2021). Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 6,493 Veg/Grain/Starch 397.4 Ag and Fishing Livestock 0 Fisheries Harvest 0 Other 0 Total 6,890.4 Lumber/Timber/Logs 426.1 Shingles 1,146.3 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 591.5 Other 0 Total 2,163.9 Machinery No Data Iron Goods No Data Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware No Data Other No Data Total No Data Merchandise N/A Raw Materials No Data Construction Materials No Data Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products No Data Oil Products No Data Other No Data Total N/A TABLE 5: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1885:1042). 76 These assumptions are based on historical as well as modern standards. While it is far from perfect, it gives a good idea of Washington’s production capacity in 1885. Merchandise was not labelled because an unspecified amount rather than tonnage of merchandise was described in the report. Table 6 shows the federally expended dollar amount for 1885 but excludes the total commerce for the year as it was unavailable. The dollar amounts have been listed to show 1885 value, as well as standardized for 2022. 1885/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 3,749.83/107,779.39 Total Commerce - TABLE 6: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1885 (USACE 1885:161-162). Starting in 1876, the federal government expended funds to clear the Pamlico River and increase its commerce. Washington had been blockaded and put under siege several times during the Civil War. The blockade included pilings placed underwater downstream of the city to intercede and prevent traffic. Along with these wartime obstacles, tree stumps, imposing logs, and sunken watercraft were removed. The river was also to be straightened, widened, and deepened; the project called for the river to be widened to at least 108 feet and 9 feet deep at low water from the Pamlico Sound to Washington’s waterfront by 1885 (USACE 1885:161-162) 1891 Figure 17 below shows the 3D reconstruction of Washington’s 1891 waterfront. Growth in industries such as Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine and Machine Shops and Foundries is visible from the 1885 map. Agriculture and Fishing is starting to take up more of the central waterfront area as well along with a slight growth in the number of Warehouses. The data is taken from the Sanborn-Perris Map Co. which created the base fire insurance map in 1891. 77 FIGURE 17: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1891, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1891 (Created by author, 2022). Transportation remains an important factor of Washington during this time as well. Stables occupy most of the central and southeastern waterfront, while a railroad line is present on the northeastern portion of town. Many of the buildings appear to be increasing in height as commerce expands as well. These changes will become more apparent as the chapter progresses. 78 Table 7 provides the commercial statistics for Washington’s waterfront in 1891. The amounts have been standardized to tonnage and a breakdown of each industry is described as well. All data was taken from the USACE Annual reports for 1891 and 1892; 1892 has been included because it has the commercial statistics for the previous year. Layer Color Tonnage Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 20,600 30,252.7 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 151,000 45,117.8 Warehouses - 53,558.4 Transport - 26,859.4 Shipyards - 3,639.3 Town Buildings - 140,203.9 Machine Shops/Foundry 1,000 8,142.7 Merchandise/Misc. 23,000 - Total 195,600 307,773.4 TABLE 7: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1891 (USACE 1892:1122). The commercial statistics, in contrast to the report from 1885, are thorough and represent a good accounting of the overall commerce of Washington. The report states that the statistics were compiled by Assistant Engineer William H. Chadbourn, Jr. after extensive correspondence and conversations with steamboat captains and agents, custom house officials, and prominent shippers and merchants (USACE 1892:1122). As indicated in the table, Agriculture and Fishing comprise 10.5% of Washington’s total exports in 1891. For this year, the industry included cotton and cotton products, tobacco, rice, grains and forage, vegetable and truck, livestock, fish, oysters, and other shellfish. The Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry was by far the largest industry in Washington at the time with over 150,000 tons of goods produced. It manufactured lumber and lumber products as well as naval stores. Warehouses were used to store various products. Transportation in Washington this year included railroads, railway station, stables, and boathouses. No ships were produced in 1891, however, there was a shipyard located on the waterfront. Town Buildings included 79 dwellings but also merchandise proprietors, offices, grocers, and other non-categorical buildings. Machine Shops and Foundries first appear on the waterfront and produce machinery. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods included coal, minerals, and fertilizers. A breakdown of the various goods in each industry is provided in Table 8 (UASCE 1892:1122). Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 7,000 Veg/Grain/Starch 5,250 Ag and Fishing Livestock 200 Fisheries Harvest 8,000 Other 150 Total 20,600 Lumber/Timber/Logs 150,000 Shingles 0 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 1,000 Other 0 Total 151,000 Machinery 1,000 Iron Goods 0 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 0 Other 0 Total 1,000 Merchandise 20,000 Raw Materials 3,000 Construction Materials 0 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 0 Oil Products 0 Other 0 Total 23,000 TABLE 8: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1892:1122). . These sectors are standardized and are used in the analysis of Washington’s economy. Table 9 below gives the dollar amounts for the federally supported river improvement, as well as the commerce that flowed through Washington in 1891. The dollar amounts have been listed to show 1891 value, as well as standardized for 2022. 80 1891/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 2,617.34/80,863.73 Total Commerce 4,874,000/206,573,133.51 TABLE 9: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1891 (USACE 1891:1349). The federal government continued to invest in the improvement of the Pamlico River around Washington and even further up the Tar River to Greenville and Tarboro. The work of 1885 continued with the clearing of the Civil War blockade debris as well as the dredging of the river and the removal of natural hazards such as logs and stumps. Survey operations were also conducted further up the Tar River around Greenville and Tarboro. The dredging of the river was intended to create a 108-foot wide and 9-foot-deep good channel up to Washington at low water (USACE 1891:1349). There were 16 vessels that frequented Washington’s waterfront in 1891 These ships varied from steamers of 400 tons to small tugboats of 10-20 tons for a total tonnage of 1,916. Five steamers travelled regularly from Washington to Norfolk, Virginia, with another two travelling to Tarboro. The rest had irregular schedules with no distinct destinations. Passenger data was not recorded for 1891 (USACE 1891:1349). 1896 Figure 18 below shows the 3D reconstruction of the waterfront in 1896. Large changes are noticeable from 1891, including a large lumber company which appears on the northwest side of town. A railroad also appears which services the center of the town, and the waterfront. The overall number of industrial buildings increased, especially for the Agriculture and Fishing and the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industries. 81 FIGURE 18: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1896, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1896 (Created by author, 2022). Rapid expansion of the waterfront area is clearly visible by this time. Along with the previously mentioned increases in Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine and Agriculture and Fishing industries, Transportation has a corresponding technological increase as well. The number of railroad stations doubles with the number of stables decreasing slightly. The number and height of waterfront Warehouses also has increased drastically since 1885. 82 Table 10 below offers the overall commercial statistics for each industry on Washington’s waterfront for 1896. These are standardized tonnage amounts and square feet of space occupied. All data is taken from the USACE Annual Report for 1896. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 19,024 33,075.5 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 110,859 92,966.6 Warehouses - 57,998.9 Transport - 49,434.3 Shipyards - 12,164.6 Town Buildings - 138,509.9 Machine Shops/Foundry - - Merchandise/Misc. 53,191 - Total 183,225.5 384,149.8 TABLE 10: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1896 (USACE 1896:1102). A variety of goods in the Agriculture and Fishing industry were produced at Washington during 1896. Cotton, cotton seed, and cotton seed meal, tobacco leaf, rice, grains, hay, potatoes, vegetables made up the agricultural portion of this sector of the economy. Livestock consisted of cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, and eggs. Fish and oysters were also produced by Washington in 1896 (USACE 1896:1102). The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry was similarly characterized by an increasing number of specific products during this year. Rosin, crude turpentine, turpentine spirits, wood, timber, lumber, and shingles made up this sector of the economy. Warehouses accounted for a large square footage on the waterfront and housed the goods ready for shipment by water or rail. Transportation included railways, railroad stations, stables, and boathouses. Shipyards only occupied one location on the waterfront. Town Buildings, on the other hand, took up the most space of the building categories. No Machine Shops or Foundries feature on the map for this year and so had no recorded used space. The Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industry included general merchandise shipped from 83 Washington this year as well as fertilizer, coal, and minerals. A numerical breakdown of each of these industries is given below in Table 11 (USACE 1896:1102). Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 5,984.5 Veg/Grain/Starch 10,672 Ag and Fishing Livestock 87 Fisheries Harvest 370 Other 1,910.5 Total 19,024 Lumber/Timber/Logs 107,714 Shingles 2,638.5 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 506.5 Other 0 Total 110,859 Machinery 0 Iron Goods 0 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 0 Other 0 Total 0 Merchandise 12,291 Raw Materials 10,900 Construction Materials 0 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 30,000 Oil Products 0 Other 0 Total 53,191 TABLE 11: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1896:1102). The USACE continued their work on improving the Tar-Pamlico River in 1896. As in previous years, this work included= the clearing of the river above and below Washington of logs, snags, trees, and stumps. A particular stump filled shoal below Washington is also mentioned. The cumulative work of the past two decades of clearing the river at this point resulted in a 200 foot wide and 7.5-foot-deep clear channel at Washington. No monetary commercial values were recorded for this year as well (USACE 1896:161-162). Table 12 gives the statistics for the in both 1896 and 2022 dollars, no total commerce in dollar data was reported for 1896. 84 1896/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 3,296.40/110,330.51 Total Commerce - TABLE 12: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1896 (USACE 1896:161-162). Although no shipbuilding was recorded for 1896, a total of 170 vessels plied the waters around Washington at various times of the year. These vessels had drafts of 3-8 feet and an aggregate net tonnage of 16,490.92. These vessel types included steamers and steam tugboats, barges, schooners, and sloops. It is not recorded where these vessels travelled to when not at Washington. Passenger data was likewise not reported for 1896 (USACE 1896:1103). 1901 Figure 19 below shows the reconstruction of Washington’s 1901 waterfront. Continuing industrial growth is apparent, especially in the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine and Agriculture and Fishing industries. Lumber businesses in the southeast especially expanded and Agriculture and Fishing businesses take up a large portion of the waterfront. Warehouses, on the other hand, decreased drastically in waterfront space. Shifts are apparent in the Transportation sector as well. The railroad on the northwest side of town near the lumber mill has seemingly been demolished with only a small office remaining. However, the number of stables on the southeast side of town has increased significantly. The central waterfront’s railway and associated buildings occupy a large portion of the central waterfront by this point and undoubtably played a major role in the transportation of waterfront goods stored in the warehouses and produced by the Agriculture and Fishing industries. 85 FIGURE 19: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1901, Sanborn-Perris Map Co. 1901 (Created by author, 2022). This is the first year that the industries seem to have restructured along the waterfront according to typology. Each distinct industry has its own area along the waterfront. This is also the first year that the southeast portion of the waterfront has expanded this drastically. This area is primarily occupied by dwellings and stables which indicates the high level of movement and growth that the town is undergoing at this point. 86 Table 13 below shows the combined commercial statistics and square foot data for each waterfront industry. All commercial data is taken from the USACE Annual Report 1902. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 78,587.5 26,814.3 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 747,703.5 91,569.8 Warehouses - 37,164.4 Transport - 48,029.9 Shipyards - 5,988.4 Town Buildings - 138,673.3 Machine Shops/Foundry 1,166 - Merchandise/Misc. 107,854.5 - Total 935,311.5 348,240.1 TABLE 13: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1901 (USACE 1902:1132). As with the previous years, the list of goods produced and exported by Washington increased in 1901. Many more types of goods in the Agriculture and Fishing industry were reported during this year compared to the previous years. Cotton, cotton seed, cotton seed oil, cotton seed meal, cotton see hulls, and tobacco leaf were produced. Grains, hay, potatoes, peanuts, rough rice, vegetables, Cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, eggs, and hides were traded and shipped as well. Fish, oysters, and clams made up the aquatic harvest The Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry, however, produced 9.5 times the tonnage of the agriculture and fishing industry. This included rosin, wood, timber, lumber, shingles, and tar and gum timber Warehouses stored some of these as well as other goods. Transportation included boathouses, stables, railroads, and railway stations. Shipyards occupied some space on the waterfront as well. Town Buildings includes dwellings, grocers, and other small businesses. While not occupying any space on the waterfront, Machine Shops and Foundries accounted for some production of goods. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods included general merchandise, fertilizer, coal and minerals, rafting gear, lime, shells, empty barrels, cabbage crates, pea baskets, junk, and truck (USACE 1902:1132). A 87 breakdown of the goods that make up each industry and the tonnage totals for each sector economy is given below in Table 14. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 25,409 Veg/Grain/Starch 32,438.8 Ag and Fishing Livestock 855.7 Fisheries Harvest 16,504.4 Other 3,178.5 Total 78,587.5 Lumber/Timber/Logs 747,263,3 Shingles 435.2 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 5 Other 0 Total 747,703.5 Machinery 244 Iron Goods 922 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 0 Other 0 Total 1,166 Merchandise 76,108 Raw Materials 7,984 Construction Materials 0 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 30,000 Oil Products 0 Other 0 Total 107,854.5 TABLE 14: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1902:1132). The federal project of clearing the Tar and Pamlico River continued in the 1901 fiscal year. It involved dredging the channel of shoals both above and below Washington, as well as the removal of stumps, logs, and trees during the maintenance and improvement of the river. During 1901, $2,520.44 was spent on this improvement. Table 15 gives the statistics for the in both 1901 and 2022 dollars, no total commerce in dollar data was reported for 1901 (USACE 1901:301,1487). 88 1901/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 2,520.44/83,366.67 Total Commerce - Table 15: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1901 (USACE 1901:301,1487). While no shipbuilding was reported, 1 steamboat line was established, and it is reported that the steamboat line carried 13,293 passengers during the year. 126 vessels travelled through Washington during the year as well, including steamers, sloops, schooners, and barges for an aggregate net tonnage of 14,966. These vessels also ranged in draft from 2.5 feet to some of 9 feet (USACE 1902:1132). 1904 Figure 20 below shows the reconstruction of Washington’s 1904 waterfront. Significant changes are noticeable from the 1901 map. Lumber processing expanded in the northwest. The Agriculture and Fishing businesses grew in the center of town alongside an increase in the Town Buildings of the area. The number of Warehouses grew slightly, however, there is a noticeable increase in the height of some of the warehouses. There was also a large boom in Lumber, Shingles, and turpentine industry in the southeast with a railroad supplying the lumber companies in both the northwest and southeast. Machine Shops and Foundries grew by a small margin as well. The railroad in the center of the waterfront continued to operate and do business with the central waterfront. Boathouses and stables along the central waterfront grew a small amount as well. 89 FIGURE 20: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1904, Sanborn Map Co. 1904 (Created by author, 2022). Overall, the density of structures along the entire waterfront increased from the previous years. Connectivity is also noticeable with this year being the first where railroads are noticeably supplying the major waterfront industries of Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine, on each end of the waterfront and Agriculture and Fishing in the center to town. 90 Table 16 below gives the overall commercial statistics and square foot areas for each industry on Washington’s waterfront in 1904. All commercial statistics are gathered from the USACE 1905 Annual Report. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 53,486 54,805.1 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 401,730 195,145.8 Warehouses - 56,946.2 Transport - 70,688.8 Shipyards - 2,345.1 Town Buildings - 237,710.6 Machine Shops/Foundry 573 11,317.5 Merchandise/Misc. 58,549 - Total 514,401 559,065.1 TABLE 16: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1904 (USACE 1905:1205). The Agriculture and Fishing industry remained a large portion of Washington’s trade in 1904, accounting for 10.39% of trade by tonnage. It produced cotton, cotton seed, cotton seed oil, cotton meal, cotton seed hulls, tobacco leaf, rice, grains, hay, potatoes, vegetables, and peanuts. Cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, and eggs were also exchanged and shipped. The fisheries harvest comprised a large portion of the industry as well with fish, oysters, and clams all being gathered The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry was the largest producer of goods on the waterfront with 78.1% of the total tonnage. Wood, timber, lumber, shingles, and tar were all produced in these businesses. Warehouses held a variety of waterfront goods. Transportation included stables, boathouses, railroads, and railway stations, with some railroads supplying the waterfront as well as the lumber companies. Shipyards on the waterfront, while not producing any vessels in 1904, occupied a small area of the waterfront. Town Buildings include dwellings, offices, grocers, and other nondescript waterfront buildings. The Machine Shops and Foundry expanded this year and produced goods as well. The Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods businesses of Washington produced merchandise, fertilizer, coal, minerals, rafting gear, lime, 91 shells, and brick (USACE 1905:1205). A breakdown of each industries largest production categories and their manufacturing statistics are given below in Table 17. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 26,910 Veg/Grain/Starch 22,727 Ag and Fishing Livestock 388 Fisheries Harvest 783 Other 2,778 Total 53,486 Lumber/Timber/Logs 401,408 Shingles 308 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 14 Other 0 Total 401,730 Machinery 573 Iron Goods 0 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 0 Other 0 Total 573 Merchandise 29,408 Raw Materials 7,357 Construction Materials 384 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 19,175 Oil Products 0 Other 12,658 Total 58,549 TABLE 17: The breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1905:1205). The federal government allocated $21,628.51 to the improvement and maintenance of the Tar-Pamlico River above and below Washington for the 1904 fiscal year. This maintenance was consistent with the previous year’s work. It included the dredging of the channel to a depth of 9 feet below Washington with the purpose of creating a navigable channel to the town. Stumps, trees, logs, and other snags were cleared by the hoister vessel Trent, while dredging work was done with the contracting of the dredge vessels Albemarle and Scuppernong. Both dredges worked on the improvement of the waterway directly adjacent to Washington’s waterfront. The 92 report estimates that 44 percent of the work was completed by 1904. Table 18 gives the statistics for the in both 1904 and 2022 dollars, no total commerce in dollar data was reported for 1904. 1904/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 21,628.51/683,237.34 Total Commerce - TABLE 18: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1904. (USACE 1904:231-232, 1479). While no shipbuilding was reported for this year, plenty of vessels travelled through Washington. The total number of these vessels is 173 of varying classes including steamers, schooners, barges, and naphtha or small craft. Combined these craft had a net tonnage of 20,736 tons and drafts of between 2 and 8 feet. No transportation lines were established, however, 15,000 passengers utilized those already operating. 1911 Figure 21 below shows the reconstruction of Washington’s 1911 waterfront. There are only a few differences from the 1904 reconstruction. The Agriculture and Fishing industry on the waterfront consolidated in buildings and decreased in area while the number of Warehouses grew slightly. The Town Buildings also appeared to grow. On the southeast side of the map, there is a now a large warehouse along the railway line. Town Buildings also have increased in both height and density of construction. On the southeast side of Washington, there is a now a large warehouse along the railway line which held a variety of goods shipped by the railway. Other than a slight expansion in buildings adjacent of the railway lines, there was not much change in the Transportation sector for this year. 93 FIGURE 21: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1911, Sanborn Map Co. 1911 (Created by author, 2022). One noticeable change from 1904 is in the Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine industry, the lumber mill on the furthermost southeast edge of the waterfront has gone out of business and is not recorded on the Sanborn maps by this time. The density of buildings continued to increase on the waterfront this year as well. Dwellings further expanded to the southeast of the waterfront past the railway line. 94 Table 19 below shows the total commercial production for each waterfront industry. All data was gathered from the 1911 and 1912 USACE Annual Report. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 30,244 98,424.6 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 247,029 183,164.3 Warehouses - 74,806.3 Transport - 98,744.5 Shipyards - 3,019 Town Buildings - 363,168.5 Machine Shops/Foundry 2,027 14,874.4 Merchandise/Misc. 59,269 - Total 339,552 836,201.6 TABLE 19: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1911 (USACE 1912:1740-1741). Agriculture and Fishing accounted for 8.9% of Washington’s production in 1911. This included cotton, cotton seed, cotton seed meal, cotton seed oil, cotton seed hull, grain, hay, potatoes, vegetables, and peanuts. Aquatic goods such as fish, clams, and oysters were also harvested. Cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, and eggs accounted for a smaller portion but were still produced (USACE 1912:1740-1741). The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry was prolific as well with 72.8% of total tonnage production. This industry manufactured lumber, shingles, timber, wood, and railroad crossties. Warehouses held a range of goods from merchandise to timber. The Transportation industry included stables, boathouses, railways, and railroad stations. Thought the reports indicate that no ships were built in 1911 however, a shipyard remained in operation on the waterfront (USACE 1912:1740-1741). Town Buildings made up 43.4% of the waterfront structures and included dwellings, grocers, general business, and other non-descript businesses. Machine Shops and Foundries produced machinery as well as railroad iron. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods included general merchandise, coal, fertilizer, oyster shells, ice, and brick (USACE 1912:1740-1741). A breakdown of each industry’s 1911 production is given in Table 20 below. 95 Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 16,779 Veg/Grain/Starch 7,564 Ag and Fishing Livestock 314 Fisheries Harvest 4,822 Other 788 Total 30,244 Lumber/Timber/Logs 246,197 Shingles 313 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 0 Other 219 Total 247,029 Machinery 286 Iron Goods 1,741 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 0 Other 0 Total 2,027 Merchandise 13,615 Raw Materials 4,468 Construction Materials 180 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 39,196 Oil Products 0 Other 1,810 Total 59,269 TABLE 20: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1912:1740-1741). The federal government continued the allocation of funds for the maintenance of the Pamlico River in 1911. This project was ongoing since 1876 and is stated as complete by 1911. A channel 100 feet wide and 9 feet deep at Washington had been successfully dredged by this time. The allocated funding was primarily for the maintenance of the river and channel. As with previous years, the river maintenance comprised of removing snags, stumps, logs, and trees that hampered riverine commerce. The government expenditure was dispersed to pay for wages, coal for the snag boat Trent, supplies, and subsistence (USACE 1911:354-356). Table 21 gives the statistics for the in both 1911 and 2022 dollars. 96 1911/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 3,027.54/89,598.61 Total Commerce 6,950,513/205,697,139.89 TABLE 21: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1911 (USACE 1911:354-356). The shipping industry continued to thrive during this period with 128 vessels travelling to and from Washington in 1911. These ships included sailing, steamer, gasoline, and unrigged vessels. Combined these vessels had a total aggregate registered tonnage of 20,124 tons and carried 2,100 passengers up and down the Tar-Pamlico River during the year (USACE Annual Report 1912:1740-1741). 1916 Figure 22 below shows the reconstruction of Washington’s 1916 waterfront. The Agriculture and Fishing industry and Warehouses on the central waterfront began to disappear. However, the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry on either side of Washington were still present. One noticeable difference is that the buildings all along the waterfront grew in height. Transportation remains largely unchanged from the previous years with railroads in the northwest, center, and southeast of town. The number of stables, however, has taken a sharp decline and many have disappeared. A Shipyard is still present on the central waterfront. Town Buildings, however, continue to increase in number and density, especially on the central waterfront and the southeast. These are large and tall buildings that have started to overshadow the structures on the waterfront. One noticeable difference is that the buildings all along the waterfront are growing in height. 97 FIGURE 22: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1916, Sanborn Map Co. 1916 (Created by author 2022). As mentioned above, the buildings along the waterfront have continued to grow in height. Most notably the Agriculture and Fishing, warehouses, and Town Buildings along the central waterfront. Town Buildings on the northeast and southwest side of town which consist primarily of dwellings are getting taller as well. 98 Table 22 below shows the total commercial statistics and the square footage for each industry. The data was gathered from the 1917 USACE Annual Report which has the commercial statistics for 1916. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 30,846 55,429.9 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 210,044 131,834.9 Warehouses - 63,088.1 Transport - 99,162.5 Shipyards - 5,607.6 Town Buildings - 333,578.8 Machine Shops/Foundry 1,136 9,466.8 Merchandise/Misc. 41,814 - Total 283,840 698,168.6 TABLE 22: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1916 (USACE 1917:2282-2283). Agriculture and Fishing products accounted for 10.7% of Washington’s trade in 1916. This trade included cotton, cotton seed oil, cotton seed, cotton seed hulls, cottons seed meal. Hay, dry goods, grains, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, vegetables, watermelon, groceries, and tobacco made up the rest of the agriculture. Cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, and eggs accounted for the livestock products. Salted fish, fresh fish, clams, oysters, and oyster shells were harvested. The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry accounted for the largest export from Washington, with 74% of the total tonnage. Production included lumber, timber, railroad crossties, shingles, tar, and wood. Waterfront Warehouses held these goods and the other products that moved through Washington. Transportation included railways, railroad stations, boathouses, and stables, though the latter became less prominent during this time. No ships were recorded as being constructed in 1916 with the one shipyard still located on the waterfront. Town Buildings included dwellings, grocers, markets, and general businesses made up the largest portion of the town in square footage at 47.8% of the total waterfront area. The Machine Shops and Foundry produced machinery, railroad iron, and hardware (USACE 1917:2282-2283). For 99 the Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industry, there was no “catchall” general merchandise statistic for 1916. The only good listed that constitutes merchandise that cannot be applied to another category is furniture. There is, however, quite a lot of miscellaneous goods produced by Washington in this year. This includes bricks, cement, gravel, plaster, salt, coal, fertilizer, fertilizer materials, lime, and bulk lime, gasoline, bulk gasoline, kerosene, empty oil barrels, ice, soft drinks, and unspecified miscellaneous goods (USACE 1917:2282-2283). A breakdown of the categories of production for each industry is given in Table 23 below. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 12,345 Veg/Grain/Starch 8,138 Ag and Fishing Livestock 607 Fisheries Harvest 5,924 Other 3,357 Total 30,846 Lumber/Timber/Logs 209,517 Shingles 291 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 75 Other 81 Total 210,044 Machinery 364 Iron Goods 470 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 302 Other 0 Total 1,136 Merchandise 53 Raw Materials 12,668 Construction Materials 3,955 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 22,619 Oil Products 873 Other 1,941 Total 41,814 TABLE 23: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1917:2282-2283). After decades of work, the improvement of the Pamlico River project which began in 1876 was completed in 1916. A channel 200 feet wide and 10 feet deep at low water was finished at Washington allowing for lower freight rates and increased economic potential for lesser draft vessels. This work, like the previous years, involved dredging of the channel to 100 increase width and depth as well as the removal of snags, logs, and stumps from the riverbed (UASCE 1916:542-545). Table 24 gives the statistics for the in both 1916 and 2022 dollars. 1916/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 1,878.34/48,448.76 Total Commerce 4,309,521.40/111,157,185.56 TABLE 24: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1916 (USACE 1916:542-545). It is worth noting that the report states that the character of commerce did not change due to the improvement. One new line was established, more timber was shipped by rail, greater demand for lumber increased price of lumber and fertilizer increased in price because of the First World War. It continued by mentioning that low value per ton commodities decreased while high value per ton commodities increased (USACE 1916:544). The registered vessels that travelled through Washington included sailing ships, steamers, gasoline haulers, and barges which amounted to 132 total vessels with an aggregate net tonnage of 12,086 tons. The number of total passengers that travelled by ship from the waterfront was reported as approximately 10,000 people (USACE 1917:2283). 1924 Figure 23 below shows the reconstruction of the 1924 Washington waterfront. The Agriculture and Fishing businesses on the center waterfront continued to shrink in number along with the Warehouses. In the southeast, the large Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine business disappeared while the railway was still operating. Town Buildings along the central waterfront continued to grow along with the dwellings on the northeast and southeast of the town. The Machine Shop and Foundry on the central waterfront was still operating along with the small shipyard in that area. 101 FIGURE 23: 3D model of Washington’s waterfront in 1924, Sanborn Map Co. 1924 (Created by author 2022). Many of the structures were built taller than in previous years including most of the Town Buildings which continue to expand. Transportation continued to operate with railroads on the northwest, center, and southeast of the waterfront. The stables at this time have been completely replaced by boathouses on the water and railroads. 102 Table 25 below gives the total commercial and square footage statistics for each in industry on the waterfront in 1924. All data is taken from the 1924 and 1925 USACE Annual Reports. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 19,428 82,712.9 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 102,783 168,663.3 Warehouses - 146,530.8 Transport - 134,275 Shipyards - 3,137.3 Town Buildings - 402,930.4 Machine Shops/Foundry 1,077 12,280.7 Merchandise/Misc. 41,205 - Total 163,593 950,530.4 TABLE 25: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1924 (USACE 1925:467-468). The Agriculture and Fishing sector of Washington’s economy produced much of the same goods as in the previous couple of years studied in this chapter. These goods included cotton, cotton seed, cotton seed meal, cotton seed hulls, dry goods, groceries, potatoes, vegetables, and watermelon, grain, hay, soft drinks, tobacco, and other vegetable products. Cattle and hogs, poultry and eggs were the livestock produced, while fish, fish scraps, oysters, and oyster shells accounted for the aquatic harvest The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry produced quite a lot more tonnage for this year than other sectors of Washington’s economy at 63% the total tonnage production. This industry included lumber, timber, shingles, wood, laths, poles, and all other wood products. Warehouses stored these, and other assorted goods. Transportation in the town took the form of railroads, railway stations, boathouses, and parking lots became a staple in this year as well. Town Buildings consisted of dwellings, offices, grocers, markets, hotels, and various other unclassifiable businesses. The Machine Shop and Foundry produced machinery, hardware, sheet iron, and railroad iron. No general merchandise or goods that can be considered general merchandise was recorded as being produced in Washington for this year. The 103 Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industry made up the remainder of the total goods produced. These goods included brick, cement, coal, gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, salt, fertilizer, fertilizer material, ice made, unclassified miscellaneous goods, and other minerals (USACE 1925:467-468). The statistics for each one of the categories within each industry is listed below in Table 26. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 2,273 Veg/Grain/Starch 4,117 Ag and Fishing Livestock 387 Fisheries Harvest 5,234 Other 7,317 Total 19,428 Lumber/Timber/Logs 102,061 Shingles 107 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 0 Other 615 Total 102,783 Machinery 260 Iron Goods 527 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 290 Other 0 Total 1,077 Merchandise 0 Raw Materials 453 Construction Materials 3,503 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 33,066 Oil Products 2,489 Other 772 Total 41,205 TABLE 26: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (UASCE 1925:467-468). The river improvement project was completed in 1915, however, maintenance on the improvements was continued. As in previous years, maintenance involved the dredging and clearing of snags such as logs, trees, and stumps from the river. This work was primarily 104 undertaken by the U.S. dredge Croatan and the U.S derrick boat Contentnea (USACE 1924:522- 524). The river federally expended river improvement statistics and the total commerce statistics are given below in Table 27, in both 1916 and 2022 dollars. 1924/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 16,486.81/271,066.30 Total Commerce 6,227,447/102,387,968.96 TABLE 27: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1924 (USACE 1924:524). Shipping was prolific during 1924 with many more vessels being recorded than any of the previous years combined. 750 steamers, 4,214 motor vessels, 415 sailing ships, and 33 barges are recorded as passing through Washington’s waterfront. This amounted to an aggregate tonnage of 79,792 tons. It is also reported that 10 flats or lightboats were employed on the waterway to carry lumber, fertilizer, and logging supplies. The report also states that 2,000 passengers travelled either up or downstream on motor vessels. One shipping line was also abandoned this year. (USACE 1924:524, 1925:469). 1943 Figure 24 below shows the reconstruction of Washington’s 1943 waterfront. The waterfront industries changed drastically between 1924 and 1943. While the lumber mill on the northwest side of the waterfront was still operating, the Agriculture and Fishing industry shrank to a handful of businesses. Warehouses are still present, but they are fewer in number. Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine continued to have one large northwest mill and a small southeastern mill operating. Town Buildings expanded towards the waterfront and consolidated into larger structures. 105 FIGURE 24: 3D model of the southeast view of Washington’s waterfront in 1943, Sanborn Map Co. 1943 (Created by author, 2022). Transportation remained an important facet of the waterfront with railroads still in the northwest, center, and southeast of town. One large difference is that by this time stables were fully replaced by gas stations and parking lots. It is clear that by this point the number of traditional industries along the waterfront has declined. 106 Table 28 below lists the aggregate tonnage production and square feet occupied by each industry on the waterfront. All data is taken from the 1943 and 1944 USACE Annual Reports. Layer Color Tons Area (Sq. Feet) Ag. and Fishing 9,130 28,778.2 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine 37,838 137,199.9 Warehouses - 145,669.2 Transport - 148,928.3 Shipyards - 0 Town Buildings - 434,961.8 Machine Shops/Foundry 1,107 1,815.5 Merchandise/Misc. 22,187 - Total 70,259 897,352.9 TABLE 28: Industry color key with goods produced and total area occupied by that industry in 1943 (USACE 1944:496). By 1943 the Agriculture and Fishing sector of Washington’s economy had shifted. It was comprised of rice, corn, potatoes, dried beans and peas, coffee, tapioca flour, sugar, syrup and molasses, canned food products, dry goods, groceries, feed, and Coca Cola syrup. The aquatic harvest was comprised of hard crabs, oysters in a shell, and fresh fish. No livestock were recorded as being shipped from Washington in 1943The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry was the largest sector of Washington’s economy during this year at 53.9% of total production but produced only a fraction of what it had in the previous years. It included rafted logs, pine lumber, shingles, paper stock, box shooks, and wood barrels. Warehouses were used to store Washington’s goods. Transportation included boathouses, railways, railway stations, and parking lots while gas stations appeared as well. The Shipyard on the waterfront had been demolished or incorporated into another industry at this time; it did not produce any vessels or have any space on the waterfront Town Buildings included dwellings, offices, merchandise proprietors, markets, grocers, hotels, and a variety of other unclassifiable buildings. The Machine Shop and Foundry produced structural steel, bottle caps, iron and steel drums, and hardware. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods was composed of drugs, baking soda, vinegar, and 107 merchandise, gasoline, kerosene, paints in oil, fuel oil, lubricating oil, brick, cement, fertilizers, chlorine gas, and anthracite coal (USACE 1943:496). A breakdown of the tonnage produced by each category of goods for each industry is listed below in Table 29. Category Product Tons Cotton and Cotton Products 0 Veg/Grain/Starch 208 Ag and Fishing Livestock 0 Fisheries Harvest 1,072 Other 8,110 Total 9,130 Lumber/Timber/Logs 37,580 Shingles 66 Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Naval Stores/Turpentine/Rosin 0 Other 189 Total 37,838 Machinery 0 Iron Goods 0 Machine Shops/Foundry Hardware 363 Other 744 Total 1,107 Merchandise 700 Raw Materials 246 Construction Materials 441 Merchandise/Miscellaneous Fertilizer Products 5,744 Oil Products 14,990 Other 66 Total 22,187 Table 29: Breakdown of production tonnage for each industry (USACE 1944:496). In the intervening years between 1924 and 1943, the Pamlico River improvement project was expanded to a 12-foot depth and 200-foot-wide channel at mean low water tide at Washington. This project was completed in 1939 so for 1943, only maintenance including dredging and clearing of snags occurred. It is also noted in the report that at this time there were 34 wharves on Washington’s waterfront with a frontage of 3,570 feet and the other existing facilities were considered adequate for existing commerce (USACE 1943:428). Statistics for the 108 federally expended funds and total commerce is given below in Table 30 in both 1943 and 2022 dollars; no total commerce in dollar data was reported for 1943. 1943/2022 Dollars River Improvement (Federally Expended) 28,866.38/469,117.05 Total Commerce - TABLE 30: Federally expended money and total commerce for 1943 (USACE 1943:428). Ship travel included vessels with drafts that varied from 2 to 11 feet. This included motor vessels, sailing vessels, barges, and tugs totaling 3,198 vessels that travelled through Washington in 1943. They had a total net tonnage of 95,721 tons and carried 600 passengers during the year (USACE 1944:496). Conclusion This data is used in chapter 6 to engage in diachronic analysis (i.e., an examination of change through time) of Washington’s waterfront commerce. All nine periods of study are compared using statistics and graphs to determine the answers to the proposed research questions listed earlier in this thesis. The analysis of all this data will help shed light on the how all the industries on the waterfront evolved during the roughly six decades covered by this study. 109 CHAPTER 6: ECONOMIC AND VISUALIZATION ANALYSIS OF WASHINGTON’S WATERFRONT INDUSTRIES Introduction This chapter synthesizes the results data presented in Chapter 5 for a diachronic analysis of Washington’s waterfront commerce. This is a multi-part analysis that investigates the commercial development and decline of the waterfront, the square footage increases and decreases of industries, and the infusion of federal funds to improve the Pamlico River channel. A visualization of the expansion and contraction of the waterfront will also be conducted which will show the waterfront change for the Agriculture and Fishing and Lumber, Shingle, Turpentine industries. These are the two largest industries on the waterfront and are emblematic of its development. Line graphs and bar graphs communicate possible points in time that represent the divergences or continuities between trade, construction on the waterfront, and possible explanations of the effects of waterfront changes. All these individual analyses are intertwined with the history and theories of port development discussed earlier in this research to create a full picture of the waterfront evolution. Washington’s commerce is examined first. This includes the individual assessment of the Agriculture and Fishing industry, Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine industry, Machine Shops and Foundry industry, and the Merchandise and Miscellaneous industry. Total commerce compared to square footage and total commerce compared to river improvement follow the individual industry commercial analysis. This approach allows for the quantifiable and measurable determination of what happened to individual industries on the waterfront and is followed by an understanding of the overall trends of Washington’s waterfront development. Waterfront Industry Analysis This section deals with the commercial analysis of Washington between 1885 and 1943. It begins with a discussion of individual industries and their respective produced goods. That data is then used to analyze total waterfront commerce. The graphs used in this chapter cover the decades between 1880 and 1950, analyzing the individual years defined by Sanborn maps and commercial statistics communicated in the previous chapter. This evaluation is meant to be an economic analysis of Washington’s waterfront production. While extenuating circumstances such as weather variations or even conflict (i.e., World Wars at the time of the 1916 and 1943 datasets), influenced the economy and production, those variables cannot be accounted for with the data available, so definite conclusions about the effects of those events will not be drawn. Agriculture and Fishing Figure 25 visualizes the statistics for the Agriculture and Fishing industry of Washington between 1885 and 1943. Four types of goods within this overall industry represent the four largest categories of agricultural and fishing goods: Cotton and Cotton Products are denoted with a red line; Vegetables, Grains, and Starch are gold colored; Livestock is a dark red line; and Fisheries Harvest is a dark blue line. The grey line represents the ‘Other’ category of goods. This graph shows the distribution of goods production over time. Some trends are initially quite striking, as there is a massive increase in production for the first few years of the study. This culminates around the turn of the century, followed closely by a sudden and sharp decrease in production, and no recovery. 111 Agriculture and Fishing Production in Tons 1901 35,000 1904 30,000 25,000 1896 1911 1916 20,000 1891 1885 1924 15,000 1943 10,000 5,000 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Year Cotton and Cotton Products Veg/Grain/Starch Livestock Fisheries Harvest Other FIGURE 25: Line graph for Agriculture and Fishing Statistics in tons of goods produced for the studied years (Created by author 2022). The Agriculture and Fishing industry was an important facet of Washington’s waterfront commerce and is a good indicator of the overall health and evolution of the waterfront. Figure 25 roughly mirrors the timeline Gordon Jackson (1983) argues for in his morphological approach to port development. He asserts that the height of regional port prosperity lasted from 1870 to 1914, while stagnation and decline happened from 1919 onwards. Washington’s Agriculture and Fishing industry appears to have undergone that same process in time. The height of prosperity was reached at the beginning of the 20th century, followed by a decline. This may have been due to the technological changes that helped regional ports initially, but then caused their collapse by outclassing and superseding the waterfront systems (Jackson 1983:47). While technological innovations such as railroads may be responsible to an extent, national trends also need to be consulted to gain a larger perspective of production rates of 112 Tons goods. Cotton production through the United States generally increased from 1880 until 1914, after which production rates dropped until 1925, when a resurgence occurred that was then followed by even lower rates until 1945. Hay, however, remained at relatively constant production levels throughout 1885 to 1943 (United States Department of Commerce [USDC] 1949:108). Wheat and corn underwent yearly fluctuations and peaked in 1915 followed by a small decrease but remained at stable production afterwards (USDC 1949:106). Cattle production gradually increased year to year as well during this period (USDC 1949:102). All these data points, apart from cotton, exemplify that Washington’s waterfront decrease of agricultural production was not due to larger trends in the United States. Decreases in cotton production may have been affected by these trends, but the other goods were affected by changes in Washington’s waterfront or regional developments. Figure 26 is a stacked bar graph that represents the overall percentages of each category of goods and how much of the overall percentage of production they represent for each year of study. The N underneath each bar denotes the sample size for each year which is the total tonnage produced by the Agriculture and Fishing industry for that year. Cotton and cotton products represented a large proportion of the agriculture and fishing industry of Washington through the years. Production increased dramatically in 1901 and further in 1904. After 1904 production rates rapidly decreased. The decrease accelerated afterwards and by 1943 there was no cotton or cotton products being produced in Washington. There was a rapid growth of vegetables, grains, and starches from 1885 to 1896. They expanded their market share, growing from less than 10 percent to over 25 percent of the Agriculture and Fishing industry. Like cotton, there was a corresponding rapid increase in the tonnage production of these goods in 1901, but a decrease in their overall market share. By 1911, 113 only a fraction of the 1901 tonnage was being produced, however, and its market share contracted from the previous years. By 1943 that number had further decreased, and it controlled no meaningful portion of the market. Agriculture and Fishing Production Percentage 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1885 1891 1896 1901 1904 1911 1916 1924 1943 Year N=6,890.4 N=20,600 N=21,904 N=78,579 N=53,486 N=30,244 N=30,846 N=19,428 N=9,130 Cotton and Cotton Products Veg/Grain/Starch Livestock Fisheries Harvest Other FIGURE 26: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). The livestock sector remained small throughout all the years studied. It seems to have generally followed the larger patterns of increase to 1901, followed by a lasting decline. The fisheries harvest classification is more variable than the other types of agricultural products. There was a substantial increase from 1885 to 1891 followed by a decline in 1896. These production contractions coincide with corresponding decreases in the overall market share, as the production rates of the other categories remains consistent compared to the fluctuations in the aquatic harvesting. 1896 was followed by another large increase in 1901 and a sharp decrease in 1904. During the next decade and a half, the production values appear to have stabilized, with 114 Percentage slightly increasing proportion of the market share. The expansion during the first and second decade of the 20th century ended by 1943 when only a small fraction of fishing goods were produced. For 1885, the production of other goods was zero. From 1891 to 1901 there was a steady increase and by 1901 a high was reached, however, this value decreased over the next decade. By 1904 production was down and this number further dropped in 1911. From 1885 to 1911, the market share remained relatively consistent. By 1916 this trend reversed, and production numbers and market share rose. Further increases in production were apparent by 1924. The goods in this category shifted dramatically between 1924 and 1943. By 1943, corn, dried peas and beans, coffee, tapioca flour, sugar, syrup, molasses, coca cola syrup, canned food products, groceries, feed were being produced, rather than the traditional hay and tobacco. These new goods took up around 85 percent of the agriculture and fishing market as well. This solidified a shift in production that began in the early 1920s and is apparent with a decrease in shipping of cotton and vegetable products. The trends described above, show a few interesting points of inflection. The first is in 1891, when the industry truly diversified and produced all the different types of goods. The second point is in 1901 when the production of all goods skyrocketed and reached a peak that was far above all other production values. The third and final point of deviation appeared during the mid-1920s and is obvious by 1943. This third point represents the time where new types of goods were being produced by the Agriculture and Fishing industry. These included canned products, syrup, molasses, and coca cola syrup replaced cotton, grains, vegetables, starches, livestock, and fisheries harvest. A visualization of this change is shown below in Figures 27-30. 115 FIGURE 27: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1885 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Agriculture and Fishing (red) layers (Courtesy of the author). 116 FIGURE 28: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1904 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Agriculture and Fishing (red) layers (Courtesy of the author). 117 FIGURE 29: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1943 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Agriculture and Fishing (red) layers (Courtesy of the author). 118 The replacement of these goods cannot be applied to shifts in larger national economic trends as mentioned above. Cotton values varied and slowly decreased but all other goods were either steady or increased. The waterfront’s Agriculture and Fishing industry appeared to follow the rise and height of prosperity which occurred between 1891 and 1901. This also represents the greatest diversification between the traditional Agriculture and Fishing goods before they were supplanted by new products that may not have been as integral to waterfront trade as the traditional goods. Overall, the national statistics show that these decreases were not on a national level, rather, they were on a regional or solely local level. These goods also follow the timeline and trends argued by Jackson (1983) in which a height of prosperity around the turn of the 20th century was reached, followed by a sustained decline due to technological innovations such as railroads that collapsed most port systems (Jackson 1983:47). This can be seen as a visualization in the above figures. The Agriculture and Fishing industry is turned on with the Transportation layer to show the growth of each in a side-by-side comparison. Agriculture and Fishing can be seen growing from 1885 to an impressive number of buildings in 1904, the cotton production high, to an equally impressive decline to 1943. Transportation increases from stables in 1885 to stables and railroads in 1904 to railroads and parking lots in 1943. This shows an incredible amount of growth and technological innovation in a relatively short amount of time. While Agriculture and Fishing declines, Transportation increases and technologically innovates. The Transportation sector may have initially grown to support the Agriculture and Fishing industry; however, it was not reliant on the former for continued growth and development and very well may have taken business away from the waterfront. This is a further example of the changes in good production described previously and it supports the technological innovation argument espoused by Jackson (1983). Further 119 investigation of other waterfront industries is necessary to determine if this process was isolated with the Agriculture and Fishing industry or appears in other sectors of the waterfront economy. The sonar data and reconstruction present an opportunity for further archaeological data gathering on any of the industries on the waterfront. As is visible in the imagery, the historical waterfront is located inland of the current waterfront so there are no discernable archaeological remains on the riverbed. The overlay of the reconstruction, however, may be able to act as a predictive archaeological model to get a rough estimation of where in situ archaeological remains may be located. The area around the railroad station is of particular interest and may hold the remains of the large industrial structures in that vicinity. Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine This section discusses the analysis of the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry of Washington. The production values for each year are shown in Figure 30. This industry is comprised of four distinct categories: lumber, timber, and logs is denoted by an orange line; shingles with a red line; naval stores, turpentine, tar, and rosin is a light blue line; other goods are colored with a gray line. The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industrial output roughly mirror that of the Agriculture and Fishing industry. Drastic increases of shingles in 1896 and of lumber in 1901 were followed by corresponding decreases in production capacity. Naval stores and turpentine followed a similar, but earlier pattern. They increased drastically in 1896 but fell sharply to almost no production value by 1901. Other goods saw an increase in 1924, however, that too was followed by a sharp decrease. 120 Lumber, Shingles, Turpentine Production in Tons 800,000 19011896 3,000 700,000 2,500 600,000 1904 2,000 500,000 1885 1916 400,000 1891 1,500 1911 1924 300,000 1,000 1943 200,000 500 100,000 0 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Lumber/Timber/Logs Shingles Naval Stores/Turpentine/Tar/Rosin Other FIGURE 30: Line graph for Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). One distinction to make, is that production of lumber, timber, and logs was far more in tonnage than the other categories within this and all other industries on Washington’s waterfront. These goods are measured in hundreds of thousands of tons rather than in thousands or hundreds of tons. This industry was by far the largest on the waterfront and relied on it for transportation and storage of large lumber. The rise and fall of the lumber industry can be directly correlated with the rise and fall of the industrial waterfront. Gordan Jackson (1983) argues that technological changes hampered the development of ports in the early 20th century and aided in their systematic collapse. The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry exemplifies this theoretical perspective. The height of production occurred for the three traditional categories from 1891 to 1901 which represents the height of prosperity argued by Jackson. This period was in turn followed by one of decline in those traditional 121 Tons of Lumber/Timber/Logs Tons of Shingles, Naval Stores/Turpentine/Tar/Rosin, Other industries which saw the production of some of the categories such as lumber, drop by as much as 95% and be supplanted by ‘other’ industries. The data from this industry also supports Hoyle and Hilling’s (1984) geographic-spatial assertions regarding regional ports. A port’s location and connectivity to the regional hinterlands and wider maritime trade routes determines the survival potential of regional ports. The main export of the port of Washington throughout this entire period was large cut lumber and timber. This was supplied by upriver pine forests which drew initial investment into the town and its geographic position was strategically located in between the pine forests and the wider trade routes reaching into the Atlantic. This began to change, however, as the river adjacent pine forests were cut down and the lumber companies moved operations inland. By 1918 this process had been solidified with the lumber companies increasingly shipping their lumber to and from Washington using railroads because waterborne transportation was inefficient and unprofitable (USACE 1918:591). The geographic position of the waterfront was unimportant by the early 20th century for the largest industry on it, which undoubtably played a large part in the overall decline and decrease of importance on the entire waterfront. Figure 31 shows the percentages of each one of the categories of goods within the Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry of Washington for each year in this research. N underneath each bar represents the tonnage production for each year; the lumber and associated products category was by far the largest producer of goods and raw materials for Washington after 1885. Shingles and turpentine were large producers in 1885, but shingles and turpentine decreased in production capacity and percentages while large scale lumber increased drastically. 122 Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine Production Percentages 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1885 1891 1896 1901 1904 1911 1916 1924 1943 Year N=2,163.9N=151,000N=108,130.5N=747,703.5N=401,730N=247,029N=210,044N=102,783N=37,838 Lumber/Timber/Logs Shingles Naval Stores/Turpentine/Tar/Rosin Other FIGURE 31: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). Large scale lumber production rapidly expanded from 1885 to 1901. After this period, it made up around 98 percent or more of the percentage of goods manufactured within this industry. Even though it underwent a massive decline in overall production from 1901 to 1943, by 1943 it still comprised 98-99% of the total tonnage percentage for this industry. Shingle manufacturing followed a similar pattern as lumber. However, in 1885 it represented a large percentage of production within this industry. By 1891, this was overtaken by large scale lumber production which coincided with an overall decrease in shingle manufacturing. That sharp decline was followed in turn by an increase to all time high production in 1896. After another sharp decline, production numbers stabilized until 1916. The tonnage then dropped by 1924 and by 1943 there was only a small amount of shingle production. 123 Percentage Compared to both the two previously mentioned goods, the naval stores, tar, turpentine, and rosin businesses were not as prolific. It hit its high level of production in 1891 and dropped steeply in the subsequent years. By 1896 production was halved and by 1901 only 5 tons were recorded as being produced. In 1904 there was a similarly small amount manufactured, but a slight increase in 1916 was followed by a fall to zero tons in both 1924 and 1943. This was the first product that defied the trends seen in other goods analyzed so far. It had a high in 1891, a decade before other goods production peaked. It then sharply declined and did not recover over the subsequent decades and seems to have disappeared by 1924 and certainly by 1943. The ‘other’ category of goods did not account for anything produced until 1911 when railroad crossties were manufactured. By 1924 the variety of goods increased and reached a production high with the manufacturing of laths, poles, and other wood products. These goods decreased once again in 1943 and included box construction components paper stock, and wooden barrels. Figures 30 and 31 show two distinct periods for the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry. The first is the period from 1891 to 1901 in which all three of the traditional categories of goods reached their peak levels of production. As mentioned previously this period aligns with the timeline of Gordon Jackson’s (1983) morphological theory on port development with the period of 1870 to 1914 being the height of prosperity and subsequent years representing stagnation and decline. The second time is in during the mid-1920s where the production of ‘other’ goods increased while everything else decreased. While the production value was many times smaller than that of lumber, it still represents a break in the overall trend of decreasing production values. To understand the larger picture of lumber production, national statistics must be considered. 124 Washington’s Lumber, Shingle, and Turpentine industry both mirrored and diverged with national statistics for production. Total hardwood and softwood national production values increased from 1879 to 1913, stabilized between 1913 and 1925, decreased from 1925 to 1934, and increased from 1934 to 1945 (USDC 1949:125). Washington’s lumber industry initially mirrors this with increases until 1901. The large divergence occured when production values for Washington did not see any kind of resurgence and continued decreasing through the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s. National turpentine and rosin production, however, did not match Washington’s industrial data during any of the dates in this study. Turpentine production increased nationally until 1930 when it stabilized and decreased. Rosin production was relatively stable from 1898 to 1945 (USDC 1949:126-127). This was a complete divergence of the trend seen in Washington. By 1896, turpentine and rosin production was of minimal importance and not regarded as an important facet of Washington’s economy, while it still increased in national production. These statistics show that national trends and fluctuations in the production of these various goods did not necessarily affect the local and regional production of these industrial goods. The changes and development of the waterfront were a factor of both morphological changes and geographic considerations. General trends of regional port development argued by Jackson (1983) must be considered alongside the geographic and spatial approach of Hoyle and Hilling (1984). These various sectors of Washington’s economy were integral to the survival and development of the waterfront, especially large-scale lumber production. Production values align on the timescale proposed by Jackson and with the geographic considerations of Hoyle and Hilling. The stagnation and decline period started after 1901 when production plummeted. They dropped even further because of the lack of ready pine close to the river which caused the lumber 125 businesses to move away or shift their transportation methods from the river to railroads. Once this process occurred, the largest businesses on the waterfront had transitioned away from the traditional method of waterborne log transportation to the more technologically superior, efficient, and connected railroad system. A visualization of these changes can be seen in Figures 32-34, which show the southeast side of Washington’s waterfront in 1885, 1901, and 1943, and represent its beginning, height of prosperity, and final decline, respectively. These are images taken from the southeastern portion of the waterfront reconstruction, where the changes in waterfront business were the most apparent. When examining the images, it should be noted that areas of “background grey” between the modeled waterfront edge and the sonar imagery are indicative of the extent to which Washington’s waterfront was altered (extended and filled in) during the waterfront revitalization in the latter parts of the twentieth century. As with the Agriculture and Fishing industry, these visualizations can tell us more about the archaeological record, rather than just the economic output of these businesses. As is visible in the reconstructions, the riverside businesses are receded quite a distance from the present waterfront. This gray area in the data is currently both a terrestrial site and the location of a tidal pond and drainage area that could not be accessed by boat. However, to the far right on the sonar data is a rectangular structure adjacent to the current waterfront. To the right of that structure is a set of pilings extending perpendicular from the shoreline. Both these structures could be investigated further and may be related to the lumber businesses in the area during the 20th century. There is also an opportunity to investigate the area in which this survey was not able to access, which is the previously mentioned gray area in between the data and the reconstructions. 126 Tidal Pond/Commercial Development FIGURE 32: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1885 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine (orange) layers (Courtesy of the author). 127 Tidal Pond/Commercial Development FIGURE 33: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1901 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine (orange) layers (Courtesy of the author). 128 Tidal Pond/Commercial Development FIGURE 34: Close up view of the sonar data overlayed on the 1943 reconstruction showing the Transportation (light blue) and Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine (orange) layers (Courtesy of the author). 129 The industrial expansion from 1885 to 1901 is striking, as is the decline from 1901 to 1943. The Transportation sector is visible with the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry. Transportation grew from stables in 1885 and 1901 to railroads and gas stations by 1943. One interesting thing to consider is that the railroad was initially built around the southeastern most lumber mill but remained even after that lumber mill had disappeared. This may suggest that the railroad was initially dependent on the business of the lumber mill, but that dependence decreased to the point that when the lumber mill ceased operations, the railroad was able to stay due to other factors or business. Changes in technology and the availability of raw materials in the immediate geographic area seem to be the most likely reasons for the decline of the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry. Machine Shops and Foundries The production of the Machine Shops and Foundry industry on Washington’s waterfront is discussed in this section. Figure 35 below shows the breakdown of goods produced by this sector of the economy and how many tons of each goods were produced in each year. Machinery is denoted by a dark green line, Iron Goods is a green line, and Hardware is denoted by a light green line. The ‘Other’ category is a gray line. The production values of this industry were quite variable, especially in the first few years of the study. This is also the first industry that totally diverged from the expected pattern of high production through 1901 followed by a sharp decline until 1943. This industry is denoted by the spike in production in 1911 of iron goods. Other goods has an increase in production by 1943, however, which is a pattern that diverges from the other waterfront industries. 130 Machine Shop and Foundry Production in Tons 2,000 1911 1,800 1,600 1,400 1901 1,200 1891 1904 1916 1,000 1943 1924 800 1896 1885 600 400 200 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Machinery Iron Goods Hardware Other FIGURE 35: Line graph for Machine Shop and Foundry production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). There was no production in 1885, followed by a spike in production of machinery in 1891. There was once again no production of any of these types of goods in 1896, but 1901 saw a rise in production of machinery and iron goods. In 1904, however, only machinery was manufactured. Manufacturing for this sector of the economy peaked in 1911, contrary to the other previously analyzed industries. Iron goods underwent a corresponding decrease in 1916 while hardware and machinery had slight increases. This trend continued in 1924, except for machinery which decreased in 1924. By 1943, however, iron goods and machinery had no production while the market was overtaken by ‘other’ goods and hardware production. ‘Other’ goods were mainly composed of steel manufactures. Figure 36 shows the percentage of total production that each category for this industry produced for each year of the study. 131 Tons Machine Shop and Foundry Production Percentage 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1885 1891 1896 1901 1904 1911 1916 1924 1943 Year N=0 N=1,000 N=0 N=1,166 N=573 N=2,027 N=1,136 N=1,077 N=1,107 Machinery Iron Goods Hardware Other FIGURE 36: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). It is difficult to determine what effect this industry had on the waterfront. The production values are small compared to the other industries and they are so variable between 1885 and 1911 there is barely any pattern to discern. This industry was also composed of a one or two building complex on the waterfront, but it did not have a large footprint on the waterfront. Even so, a pattern begins to emerge by the last three years of the study. Bergholm et al. (2007) argued for a holistic and comprehensive approach to port development and that theoretical assessment starts to appear through the analysis of the Machine Shops and Foundry industry of Washington. A clear shift becomes apparent in the last three years of the study. The dominance of iron goods and machinery fades and is supplanted by mainly steel goods of the ‘other’ category. This is supported by a national increase in the production of iron and steel goods between 1899 and 1945, with steel replacing iron in 132 Washington by 1943 (USDC 1949:180). While this is only a small sector of Washington’s economy, it shows that historic changes such as the switch from iron to steel in manufacturing processes is a viable option to combat negative changes in port development. This strategy was employed by this industry on the waterfront; however, this was only a small portion of Washington’s waterfront production while morphological changes and geographic deficiencies continued to work against maritime commerce as the century advanced. Merchandise and Miscellaneous This section analyzes the Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industry production. Figure 37 below shows the production in tons; merchandise is gold; fertilizer is green; raw materials is blue; oil products is black; construction materials is brown; and other is gray. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods Production in Tons 80,000 1901 70,000 60,000 1904 50,000 1896 1911 1891 1916 192440,000 1885 1943 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Year Merchandise Raw Materials Construction Materials Fertilizer products Oil Products Other FIGURE 37: Line graph for Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods production statistics for Washington (Created by author 2022). 133 Tons Merchandise and other products spike in 1901 and decrease afterwards, comparable to the other industries analyzed previously in this chapter. However, fertilizer products reach their peak in 1911 while raw materials peaked in 1916. Construction materials remain low during all years included in this study; however, oil products make up a large amount of tonnage and market share of the industry by 1943. Figure 38 below shows the production of merchandise and miscellaneous goods as a factor of the total percentage of production output. Even though there is merchandise data for 1885, it is not included in these graphs because the units of measurements could not be determined. Total tonnage values for the Merchandise and Miscellaneous goods industry are quite high as well, comparable to the Agriculture and Fishing industry. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods Production Percentages 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1885 1891 1896 1901 1904 1911 1916 1924 1943 Year N=0 N=23,000 N=53,191 N=107,854.5N=58,549N=59,269N=41,814N=41,205N=22,187 Merchandise Raw Materials Construction Materials Fertilizer products Oil Products Other FIGURE 38: Bar graph depicting the percentage each category of goods produced for each year (Created by author 2022). 134 Percentage The locations producing these goods are scattered in a decentralized way among the town of Washington; they were dispersed throughout the town and had no set layer in the reconstruction. They are not necessarily dependent on the waterfront; however, it is the only industry that seems to be at least partially successful in reviving production values by 1943. Some values such as the construction materials or the other category cannot give much insight into this industry’s connection to the waterfront of larger trade networks. Patterns of evolving good production are apparent when comparing the types of goods within this industry. Two distinct phases of Merchandise and Miscellaneous goods production become apparent. The first is the period from 1891 to 1911 when the largest categories of goods for this industry are fertilizers and merchandise. This shifts during the second period from 1916 to 1943 when fertilizer then oil supersedes the production of all other goods. When comparing these two periods of deviation to national statistics, a few trends appear. Washington’s merchandise production decreases after 1901, however, national merchandise production increases quite rapidly until the early 1930s when the demand for those products decreased (USDC 1949:180-182). Fertilizer followed a similar pattern, although on a different timeline. National production of those goods increased constantly from 1880 through 1945, while Washington’s production of them decreased sharply from 1924 to 1943 (USDC 1949:148). Washington’s oil production is the only category of goods that matches well with the national average, which increased steadily from 1893 to 1945 (USDC 1949:146). These trends align with Bergholm et al.’s (2007) holistic approach to port development. Historic events and economic shifts certainly played a large role in the evolution of Washington’s Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industrial production. While Washington’s merchandise production decreased after the turn of the century, the national 135 decrease in merchandise production after 1930 was undoubtedly caused by the Great Depression which decreased demand for such household products. While there are no data points for merchandise production in Washington for the 1930s, a slight resurgence in 1943 could point to a renewed demand for such goods. The almost continuous production of fertilizer could possibly be attributed to the larger national trends of agricultural production increases described in the Agriculture and Fishing industry section; however possible, there is scarce data to positively correlate the two. One positive shift seen is the increase in oil product production which embodies global economic shifts described by Bergholm et al. (2007). There was an increasing demand for oil products, especially by 1943 when that good was the main source of energy for most machinery, cars, and larger ships. Washington increased its production and diversified into this new market to fill increasing demand. Washington’s Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods was the largest industry investigated that was able to diversify and adapt to new regional or global demands. However, it was not directly connected to the waterfront and could not help to increase waterfront production or slow the decline of commerce that utilized the waterfront for transportation. Total Commercial Analyses This section includes a total commerce and square footage analysis, as well as a total commerce and federal expenditure on river improvement analysis. The total commerce and square footage comparison provides an understanding into correlations and possible divergences between industrial output and the square footage of each industry. Total commerce and river improvement analyses the possible correlation between commerce on Washington’s waterfront and annual federal expenditures on river improvement. Correlations or divergences between data 136 points in these two analyses will help to expand on conclusions that have already been made previously in this chapter. Total Commerce and Square Footage Analysis This section analyzes the comparison of tonnage production to area occupied by each industry. The total tonnage graph is given below in Figure 39. Commerce for each industry is given as well as the total commerce for Washington in that year: the Agriculture and Fishing industry is red; Machine shops and Foundry industry is green; Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry is orange; Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods is golden; and the Total commercial production is black. Figure 40 is a graph of the total area in square feet for each category of building on the waterfront that appear in the three-dimensional reconstructions. The Agriculture and Fishing industry is red, Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine is orange, Machine Shops and Foundry is green, Shipyards is blue, warehouses are yellow, Transportation is turquoise, and Town Buildings is grey. Each graph is a line graph with the decades between 1880 and 1950 delineating time. Each year of the study from 1885 to 1943 is marked and labelled on the graphs. These graphs highlight an interesting dynamic. While there is correlation between growing production values and square footage increases, they are not simultaneous occurrences. This is apparent with the two largest industries on the waterfront, Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine, and Agriculture and Fishing. There is a lag time between the spike of values in 1901 and the corresponding square footage increases which occur in 1904 and 1911, respectively. 137 Total Tonnage for Each Industry 1,000,000 1901 900,000 800,000 700,000 1904 600,000 500,000 1911 400,000 1896 1916 300,000 1891 1924 200,000 1885 1943 100,000 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Ag. and Fishing Machine Shops/Foundry Merchandise/Misc Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Total FIGURE 39: Line graph depicting the tonnage production for each industry and the total production of goods for Washington (Created by author, 2022). 138 Tons Area in Square Feet for Each Category 500,000 1943 450,000 1924 400,000 1911 1916 350,000 300,000 1904 250,000 200,000 1901 1896 1891 150,000 1885 100,000 50,000 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Ag. and Fishing Lumber/Shingles/Turpentine Warehouses Transport Shipyards Town Buildings Machine Shops/Foundry FIGURE 40: Area in square feet over time for each industry (Created by author, 2022). 139 Sqaure Feet The increases in area in 1904 for Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine correspond to production increases in 1901, but not to the values that appear for 1904. This is comparable to Agriculture and Fishing which has production highs in 1901 and 1904, but a square footage increase does not appear until 1911. This square footage increase of these industries may have been a response to keep up with the high levels of production of the previous years, however, production declines shortly after the square footage increases. This shows these foundational waterfront industries responded to increasing production numbers by extending their square footage and presumable production capacity, however, production values decrease sharply afterwards, which was detrimental to their businesses and the expenses related to square footage expansion. Transportation steadily increased throughout the entire period, which began with stables and boathouses but soon expanded at the turn of the century with a marked increase due to the introduction of a multitude of railroad lines. Warehouses along the waterfront underwent a noticeable, steady increase throughout the entire period as well. The combination of the waterfront transportation and the incoming and outgoing railroad business most likely caused this increase. This is a noticeable deviation from the decline of waterfront commerce. Even when production of waterfront goods decreased across most industries, the warehouses used to store goods increased. Town Building square footage increased after 1901 and continued to rise steadily through the rest of the period. These buildings were mostly dwellings; however, they were also general businesses, markets, grocers, offices, hotels, and many more types of businesses that were not directly linked to waterfront industrial production. This exemplifies further deviation from the importance of the waterfront. The population grew during this time, but so did the number of 140 businesses that were not necessarily reliant on the waterfront for trade and transportation. The Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods industry made up some of these structures and was the only industry to adequately develop after the waterfront industries declined. Machine Shops and Foundries and Shipyards remained on the waterfront; however, their production values were negligible, and any kind of growth or decline is difficult to discern with such a small square footage and waterfront production. Total Commerce and River Improvement Analysis This section analyses the possible links between federally expended funds on river improvement and maintenance and total commerce. Total commerce is analyzed using the tonnage values for each year, since monetary values for total commerce occur in only a few of the years. This comparison is given in Figure 41. Federally expended funds are in a standardized 2022 dollar value on the left vertical axis. Commerce in tons is labelled on the right vertical axis. This graph depicts the relationship between the funds expended on improvement and maintenance of the Pamlico River at Washington and the total commerce of Washington’s waterfront. For the first few years of the study, while commerce steadily increased, the government allocated a relatively stable amount to the improvement of the river. However, the commerce spike at the turn of the century was followed by a spending hike by the government. This spending increase was due to the increasing cost of work conducted on the ongoing improvement and maintenance of the river. By 1904, three dredges were continuously working on widening, deepening, and clearing the channel above and below Washington. All three had not been present in the previous years and cost more than the previous intermittent work 141 (UASCE 1904:1479). This is an increase in intensity in the project, however, it is unclear if it is a reaction to the increase in commerce. Federally Expended Funds Compared to Total Commerce 800,000 1901 1,000,000 1904 700,000 900,000 800,000 600,000 1943 700,000 500,000 600,000 1911 400,000 1924 500,000 1896 1916 300,000 1891 400,000 1885 300,000 200,000 200,000 100,000 100,000 0 0 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 Federally Expended Funds Total Commerce FIGURE 41: Federally expended funds compared to Washington’s yearly total commerce (Created by author, 2022). A period of decline in the overall commerce and federally allocated funds followed. The decrease in commerce has been analyzed in detail, however, the decrease in funds through 1916 is because the river improvement project on the Pamlico River was completed in 1915 (USACE 1916:542). A second divergence occurred between 1916 and 1924 where commerce levels continue their decrease, however, federally allocated funds increased. This increase appears to be due primarily on the expansion on the Pamlico-Tar River project and a resumption of maintenance work around Washington. While the project that ended in 1915 was primarily concerned with the clearing of the area around Washington, the new project from 1916 onwards primarily dealt with maintenance around Washington but also the expansion and improvement of 142 2022 Dollars Tons the Tar River up through Greenville and Tarboro (USACE 1919:631). That increase of funds was primarily concerned with the upriver improvement rather than further improvement on the Washington waterfront or any kind of attempt to slow the decline of Washington’s maritime commerce. However, statistics on national expenditures on harbor and river improvements during that time is lacking so any correlation to larger trends cannot be made. While initially the two figures appeared to relate to one another, upon further examination, the federal funds were increases in spending to finish an already existing improvement and maintenance project through 1915. The increase in funds after 1924 was primarily due to increasing the expenditure for improvements on the Tar River, upriver from the port of Washington. Waterfront Development Conclusions Throughout Washington’s early modern history, the waterfront was composed of traditional industries with main products. In the Agriculture and Fishing industry cotton products, grains, starches, vegetables, and the aquatic harvest made up traditional production. In turn, it occupied a large portion of the central waterfront in town. In the Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry large scale lumber manufacturing was by far the highest producer. It also occupied a large portion of the waterfront on both the northwestern and southeastern edges of town. Machine Shops and Foundries, while a smaller portion of production and waterfront occupation, still produced important machinery and hardware. Merchandise and Miscellaneous Goods was dominated for most its history by production of general merchandise and fertilizer products. 143 As time went on, however, the traditional industries and their goods were usurped by secondary goods. However, this does not necessarily mean that the waterfront disappeared with these goods. The introduction of other types of goods in some industries shows a resilience in Washington’s waterfront system. There appears to have been a shift into more modern goods by 1943. By this point steel, oil, and continued fertilizer production indicated an evolution in production rather than a complete demise. It seems that historically, the rise to prominence, height of prosperity, and decline timeline proposed earlier in this thesis is better used to describe Washington’s traditional industries rather than the waterfront and town. While production of goods dropped off dramatically, the ties between those industries and the prosperity and growth of Washington may not have been as strong as it may initially seem. In fact, even when production of those historical goods declined, the number of houses, markets, hotels, parking lots, gas stations, grocers, merchandise businesses all steadily increased. Even though the links between the town and the traditional businesses may be loose, the link between the waterfront and its supporting industries appears to be strong. The indication of this is the federal funds spent on the improvement compared to overall tonnage production. When production dropped and the river maintenance increased, there was no effect on the decline of overall production. This indicates that even though the businesses were diversifying into other goods, those goods may not have been as connected to the waterfront and riverine commerce as the more traditional industries, such as lumber, cotton, and fisheries products. All these factors and connections are evidence of the theoretical principles laid out in the beginning of this thesis. Gordon Jackson argued for the morphological changes of ports, in that they react and adapt to the needs of the world (Jackson 1983). This is apparent with 144 Washington’s shift in good production. Hoyle and Hilling argued for the historical-geographic approach, where successful ports are connected both to the hinterland and the wider seaward markets (Hoyle and Hilling 1984). The hinterland connectivity to Washington was based on upriver travel and the introduction of railways. The seaward connectivity was based on the downriver channel that connected the waterfront to the rest of the Pamlico Sound and beyond. This was one of Washington’s weaknesses, because its geographic position necessitated the continual dredging and clearing of the channel. Bergholm et al. (2007) argued for a holistic approach to port development that uses a combination of morphological, historical, geographic, and economic theories to explain the development of ports. A port’s ability to adapt to change, its economic potential, and its connectivity to the outside markets all contributed to its success or failure. This is exemplified in Washington by its largest industry, lumber. By 1918, the decrease in waterfront lumber production resulted from most of the lumber close to the river having already been logged. There was no reason to ship inland lumber downstream when railways were a more economic option (USACE 1918). All these historical trends, economic data, and theoretical approaches point to the fact that Washington’s waterfront industries declined due to shifts in supply and demand. The traditional industries and their associated waterfront transport became unviable businesses. As these traditional businesses shuttered, the town continued to grow, and other businesses took their place. However, these new businesses were not as connected to the waterfront as the previous manufacturers, and the waterfront steadily fell out of commercial use. Due to these changes, the town council decided to permanently end the commercial waterfront and change it to a strictly recreation based use, with the work being completed in 1973. 145 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION To complete this work, it is necessary to revisit the research questions proposed at the beginning of the thesis to ascertain if this study adequately answered the proposed questions. The primary question that guided the research is “can a visual reconstruction of the progression of Washington’s waterfront provide an adequate assessment as to why and how the industry of the waterfront declined and eventually disappeared?” This research was a study of Washington and each secondary question proposed related to different aspects of the town’s waterfront. Some of these questions can be accurately assessed, while others ended up being too large and out of the scope of this research to reach any kind of substantiated conclusion. The secondary questions will be answered one at a time, once that is completed then the answer to the primary question will be explained. The questions were as follows: Primary Question: • Can a visual reconstruction of the progression of Washington’s waterfront provide an adequate assessment as to why and how the industry of the waterfront declined and eventually disappeared? Secondary questions: • What contributing economic factors led to the decline of the waterfront industries? • Was the decrease of trade the primary factor for the dissipation and eventual abandonment of the industrial waterfront? • Does this methodology provide a viable option for further research, both inside and outside of academia? • What contributing economic factors led to the decline of the waterfront industries? The answer to this question is both straightforward and yet unclear. There are two types of factors that are apparent when looking at economic problems. One factor is the internal economy of the location in question, the second factor is the external economy of the nation or globe that is connected to the research location. Nationally, there were trends that became apparent through the analysis. Most of the increasing trends of production seen throughout the United States during the period of study were not mirrored by Washington’s waterfront production rates. This means that internal factors must be located to determine the port’s decline. Internally, there are economic factors that point to the decline of the traditional industries. The Lumber, Shingles, and Turpentine industry was, throughout the years studied, the staple industry of Washington. By the mid-1940s, however, it had been reduced to less than 10 percent of its peak production. As has been already discussed, by 1918 the waterfront lumber was mostly logged, and the inland lumber shipped by rail. The exhaustion of waterfront resources is one big contributing factor. Another would be a shift away from Washington’s traditional goods. Cotton products shipped on the waterfront steadily decreased over time until 1943 when it was not even recorded. Other traditional goods such as hay and tobacco stopped being produced as well. This all occurred while the town seems to have diversified into oil, steel sugar, molasses, and Coca Cola products. While this diversification helped the town, the waterfront and its industries were not supported by these products, and these products did not rely on the waterfront. The shift away from the production of traditional goods was a major contributing factor to the decline of the waterfront and its industries. • Was the decrease of trade the primary factor for the dissipation and eventual abandonment of the industrial waterfront? 147 The decrease of trade seems to be the one primary factor that appears across each industry studied in this research. Most goods traded on the waterfront for one reason, or another eventually decreased by a massive amount or stopped all together, particularly from 1904 to 1943. One important thing to note is that by 1943 many more recreational motorboats were registered as coming into and out of Washington compared to larger trading vessels which were few and far between (USACE 1944:497). The vastly decreased trade and the increase in recreational vehicles most likely played a large part in the decision to abandon the industrial waterfront in favor of one with recreation as its focus. • Does this methodology provide a viable option for further research, both inside and outside of academia? To effectively answer this question, an entire other study needs to be conducted on the social impacts and interest rating of these kinds of presentations on the internet, in museums, and other places of dissemination of historic knowledge to the public. However, with the right method of presentation, this type of study is a viable way at visualizing and analyzing the past. Chronological map overlays can give a fantastic representation of the development and decline of different port industries. Overlaying reconstructions with underwater or terrestrial archaeological remote sensing data may be a viable way to determine the possible locations of archaeological sites, as well as minimize impacts to them. There are also a number of ways that a study like this can be modified to work with specific areas, towns, or cities. In the right format, preferably digital, and with the right type of historical data this can be a powerful tool to analyze historical trends. 148 Final Verdict While this research did not touch on all the data regarding Washington and its historic port, the process of creating these models and sorting through the data showed an impressive resilience of the economy of Washington. The author does contend that a visual reconstruction of the progression of Washington’s waterfront provides an adequate assessment as to why and how the industry of the waterfront declined and eventually disappeared. Visualizations combined with archaeological, historic, and economic data provided a new, valuable way to look at and potentially reinterpret history. This entire process laid the groundwork for hopefully future research while also opening new avenues of exploration. This part of Washington’s economic past has been overlooked for quite some time and shedding a light on this era of its history shows a town that is ready and willing to adapt to changes. The large industries declining, and the waterfront commerce’s demise is only half the story. While that did occur, the economy diversified into goods that were suited for the modern world, such as oil and steel. The commerce also technically disappeared but it was replaced by personal watercraft and motorboats that were carrying on personal recreation rather than seaborne trade. Seeing these changes, the town decided to evolve from the old, worn-down jetties and piers of the once thriving industrial waterfront, to a now thriving recreational waterfront. While this study produced interesting results related to the growth and decline of Washington’s waterfront, there are some issues with the data at hand. Most notably, the years between 1924 and 1943 are blank. This is a glaring hole in the research which is not present in the previous years. While the graphs show a steady decline in this time, it is not clear what it looked like in those intervening years. Possible yearly increases or decreases are missing and 149 may have led to incorrect assumptions that the decline in that time was constant. Another problem is the diversification of industry is not accounted for in the 3D reconstructions. Most of those industries are lumped in with ‘town buildings’ by 1943 which prevents a true visual representation of the end stages of Washington’s industry. Future Research There are plenty of opportunities to research the port of Washington further. There are a further 550 pages of United States Army Corps of Engineer reports that have not been fully analyzed. Further reconstructions may be possible if more maps, such as the Sanborn used in this thesis, are found. More archaeological surveys can be conducted in the Pamlico River as well as using ground penetrating radar to try and locate any existing structures on the current waterfront. GIS can be used to track the upriver and downriver commerce of Washington which is listed in the USACE reports after 1910. Photogrammetry can be used to recreate the waterfront in a more realistic sense. There are really an endless number of possibilities for future research on this topic. 150 REFERENCES CITED Badia-Miro, Marc 2007 The Ports of Northern Chile: A Mining History in Long-Run Perspective, 1880-2002. 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Vol 48, New York, NY. 156 APPENDIX A Above Figures, key for the Sanborn maps provided byhttp://web.mit.edu/thecity/resources/abbreviations_for_sanborn_maps.pdf 158 (USACE Annual Report 1885:161) used in 1885 results 159 (USACE Annual Report 1885:162) used in 1885 results 160 (USACE Annual Report 1885:1041) used in 1885 results 161 (USACE Annual Report 1885:1042) used in 1885 results 162 (USACE Annual Report 1891:157) used in 1891 results 163 (USACE Annual Report 1891:158) used in 1891 results 164 (USACE Annual Report 1891:170) used in 1891 results 165 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1347) used in 1891 results 166 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1348) used in 1891 results 167 (USACE Annual Report 1891) used in 1891 results 168 (USACE Annual Report 1891) used in 1891 results 169 (USACE Annual Report 1891) used in 1891 results 170 (USACE Annual Report 1891) used in 1891 results 171 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1349) used in 1891 results 172 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1350) used in 1891 results 173 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1352) used in 1891 results 174 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1351) used in 1891 results 175 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1429) used in 1891 results 176 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1430) used in 1891 results 177 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1431) used in 1891 results 178 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1432) used in 1891 results 179 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1433) used in 1891 results 180 (USACE Annual Report 1891:1434) used in 1891 results 181 (USACE Annual Report 1892:1122) used in 1891 results 182 (USACE Annual Report 1892:1123) used in 1891 results 183 (USACE Annual Report 1896:161) used in 1896 Results 184 (USACE Annual Report 1896:162) used in 1896 Results 185 (USACE Annual Report 1896:1101) used in 1896 Results 186 (USACE Annual Report 1896:1102) used in 1896 Results 187 (USACE Annual Report 1896:1103) used in 1896 Results 188 (USACE Annual Report 1901:301) used in 1901 Results 189 (USACE Annual Report 1901:1487) used in 1901 Results 190 (USACE Annual Report 1901:1570) used in 1901 Results 191 (USACE Annual Report 1901:1571) used in 1901 Results 192 (USACE Annual Report 1901:1572) used in 1901 Results 193 (USACE Annual Report 1902:1132) used in 1901 results 194 (USACE Annual Report 1904:231) used in 1904 Results 195 (USACE Annual Report 1904:232) used in 1904 Results 196 (USACE Annual Report 1904:1479) used in 1904 Results 197 (USACE Annual Report 1905:1205) used in 1904 results 198 (USACE Annual Report 1911:354) used in 1911 Results 199 (USACE Annual Report 1911:355) used in 1911 Results 200 (USACE Annual Report 1911:356) used in 1911 Results 201 (USACE Annual Report 1911:1519) used in 1911 Results 202 (USACE Annual Report 1911:1520) used in 1911 Results 203 (USACE Annual Report 1912:1740) used in 1911 results 204 (USACE Annual Report 1912:1741) used in 1911 results 205 (USACE Annual Report 1916:542) used in 1916 Results 206 (USACE Annual Report 1916:543) used in 1916 Results 207 (USACE Annual Report 1916:544) used in 1916 Results 208 (USACE Annual Report 1916:545) used in 1916 Results 209 (USACE Annual Report 1916:2191) used in 1916 Results 210 (USACE Annual Report 1916:2192) used in 1916 Results 211 (USACE Annual Report 1917:2281) used in 1916 Results 212 (USACE Annual Report 1917:2282) used in 1916 Results 213 (USACE Annual Report 1917:2283) used in 1916 Results 214 (USACE Annual Report 1924:522) used in 1924 Results 215 (USACE Annual Report 1924:523) used in 1924 Results 216 (USACE Annual Report 1924:524) used in 1924 Results 217 (USACE Annual Report 1924:525) used in 1924 Results 218 (USACE Annual Report 1925:467) used in 1924 results 219 (USACE Annual Report 1925:468) used in 1924 Results 220 (USACE Annual Report 1925:469) used in 1924 Results 221 (USACE Annual Report 1943:427) used in 1943 Results 222 (USACE Annual Report 1943:428) used in 1943 Results 223 (USACE Annual Report 1943:429) used in 1943 Results 224 (USACE Annual Report 1944:495) used in 1943 Results 225 (USACE Annual Report 1944:496) used in 1943 Results 226