ABSTRACT Shawn Johnson, THE WORD GAP AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON K-5 BLACK MALE ACHIEVEMENT AND BEYOND, (Under the direction of Dr. Karen Jones). Department of Educational Leadership, May 2024. Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate the disparities in achievement between black males and their white counterparts in schools, the achievement gap continues to exist. Black males at every level perform at a disproportionately lower rate on state achievement tests and day to day performance in general. This leads to many troubling statistics including higher discipline rates, higher dropout rates, and higher incarceration rates to name a few. When you begin to diagnose these outcomes and consider root causes there are many variables that began to surface as to the reason(s) for this occurrence. For the purpose of this study we will focus on vocabulary acquisition. The implications of a low vocabulary range from low academic performance in school to fewer job opportunities as an adult with many obstacles in between. The 30 Million Word Gap is a study which exposed this reality by studying the interaction and dialogue of families of low economic status to learn the conversation patterns and exposure to words for the children in these homes prior to entry into kindergarten. The findings coined the phrase The 30 Million Word Gap as it was found that children from low economic status homes knew 30 million less words than their more affluent peers by the time they arrived in grade school. The majority of the children in this study were black males. My case study at Lucky Day Elementary School focused on research based instructional strategies to increase vocabulary acquisition and ultimately reduce the word gap. While the study afforded students the opportunity to read books of interest in a structured and intentional manner, the results of the study were inconclusive with regards to impact on word acquisition. THE WORD GAP AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON K-5 BLACK MALE ACHIEVEMENT AND BEYOND A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership by Shawn David Johnson May, 2024 Director of Dissertation: Karen Jones, PhD Dissertation Committee Members: Marjorie Ringler, EdD Travis Lewis, EdD Syreeta Smith, MSA ©Copyright 2024 Shawn David Johnson DEDICATION I would loke to dedicate this thesis to those that have the desire but lack the means. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank God for his continued blessings on this journey. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge my family, my tribe, and my EdD family for your continued support. I could not have made it without you. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE………………………………………………………………………………… i COPYRIGHT………………………………………………………………………… ii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………… ix LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….. x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………. 1 Background of Problem of Practice…………………………………………… 4 Context of Study……………………………………………………………….. 4 Focus of Problem of Practice………….……………………………………….. 14 Problem of Practice Study Questions…...……………………………………... 15 Overview of Inquiry..…………………………………………………………... 17 Inquiry Partners….………….…………………………………………………. 17 Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………………. 18 Definitions of Key Terms ……………….…………………………………… 20 Assumptions…………………………………………………………………… 20 Scope and Delimitations ………………………………………………………. 21 Significance of Inquiry………………………………………………………… 21 Advancing Equity and Social Justice………………………………………….. 22 Advances in Practice…………………………………………………………. 22 Summary……………………………………………………………………… 22 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………..…………………. 25 Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 25 Current State of Black Males…………….………………………………........ 25 Black Males in Public Education ……………………………………….......... 27 Contributing Factors to the Word Gap……………………………………….. 33 Lack of Early Foundational Skills……………………………………… 33 School Readiness…….…………………………………………………. 36 Beliefs, Teacher Behavior, and Student Performance…..…………………….. 41 Strategies for Success…………………………………………………………. 47 Summary ……………………………………………………………………… 54 CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF INQUIRY…………………………………………… 56 Problem of Practice Guiding Questions………………………………………. 56 Inquiry Design and Rationale …………………………………………………. 58 Context of the Study…………………………………………………….. 64 Potential Issue…………………………………………………………… 65 Participant Selection…………………………………………………………… 65 Student Participants...…………………………………………………… 65 Inquiry Partners…………………………………………………………. 65 Intervention………. ……………………………………………………………. 66 Phase 1…………………..……………………………………………… 66 Phase 2……………………………….…………………………………. 67 Phase 3…………….…….……………………………………………… 68 Evidence of Effectiveness………………….. ………………………………….. 69 Walkthrough Observations……………………………………………….. 69 Testing Instrument……………………………………………………….. 70 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………... 70 Providing Student Information………………………………………….. 70 Limitations and Assumptions ………...………………………………… 70 Role of Scholarly Practitioner ………………………………………………… 71 Summary ………………………………………………………………………. 71 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS……………………………………………………………... 73 Research Questions…………………………………………………………….. Demographics and Background………………………………………………... 74 74 Data Collection………………………………………………………………… Participant Recruitment………………………………………………………... Professional Development Series……………………………………………… 75 75 76 Session One: January 2022: The Challenge of Learning to Read……..... Session Two: August 2022: The Speech Sounds of English……………. Session Three: November 2022: Teaching Beginning, Phonics, Word Recognition, and Spelling……………………………………………….. Session Four: January 2023: Advanced Decoding, Spelling, and Word Recognition……………………………………………………………… Session Five: February 2023: The Mighty Word: Oral Language and Vocabulary………………………………………………………………. Session Six: March 2023: The Word Gap Professional Development……………………………………………………………. 77 80 81 83 84 85 Impact of COVID……………………………………………………………… Case Study……………………………………………………………………... 86 88 Student Achievement Data Analysis………………………………………….. 93 Composite Data…………………………………………………………. Vocabulary Data………………………………………………………… Summary………………………………………………………………………. CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS……………………….. Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………. Interpretations of Findings…………………………………………………….. Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………. Implications for Practice……………………………………………………… Recommendations…………………………………………………………….. Personal Leadership Growth………………………………………………….. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 93 95 95 98 98 99 103 104 105 105 106 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………….. 109 APPENDIX A: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL ……………… 118 APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT FORM …………………………………… 120 APPENDIX C: FIDELITY CHECKLIST…………………………………………... 123 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS………………………………………… 124 APPENDIX E: STUDENT INTEREST SURVEY…………………………………... 125 APPENDIX F: TEACHER SURVEY DATA ANALYSIS……………….…………. 126 LIST OF TABLES 1. Ethnicity Breakdown……………………………………………………………...... 6 2. Black Student Achievement at Lucky Day Elementary…………………………..... 7 3. Carolina County Public Schools End of Grade Test 3-Year Trend………………... 10 4. Lucky Day Elementary School End of Grade Test 3-Year Trend…………………. 11 5. Grade 1 Data comparison for Vocabulary Performance on mCLASS Assessment... 12 6. Table of Measures………………………………………………………………….. 16 7. Teacher Efficacy and Student Outcomes in Reading………………………………. 8. The Top Research-based Learning Strategies……………………………………… 9. mCLASS Composite Results………………………………………………………. 10.mCLASS Vocabulary Results ……………… …………………………………… 45 87 94 96 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Data-supported word gap at 36 months…………………………………………... 2 2. First grade diagnostic correlation between overall performance and vocabulary… 13 3. Conceptual framework…………………………………………………………… 19 4. Equity vs. equality………………………………………………………………... 23 5. Finns participation-identification model of engagement ………………………… 35 6. Selected school readiness skills…………………………………………………... 38 7. First grade ELA schedule………………………………………………………..... 59 8. Scarbourough’s reading rope……………………………………………………... 9. The simple view of reading……………………………………………………….. 10. NC EOG reading performance…………………………………………...……….. 11. Wake County EOG reading performance………………………………………… 12. Students interest survey results…………………………………………………… 78 79 89 90 91 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION As an educator, I have spent years earnestly endeavoring to ensure equity in opportunities, instructional practices, and resources for all students—with the goal of enabling success for all. The existence of the word gap-the finding that Hart and Risley (1995) reported that a child from a high-income family will experience 30 million more words within the first 4 years of life than a child from a low-income family. The contribution of such a vocabulary deficit to the achievement gaps that become evident “when one group of students (e.g., students grouped by race/ethnicity, gender) outperforms another group and the difference in average scores for the two groups is statistically significant (i.e., larger than the margin of error)” (National Assessment of Educational Progress [NAEP], 2022) is a matter of great concern that, if left unaddressed, will continue to render similar results. The Early Catastrophe (Hart & Risley, 2003; subtitled The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3) is an excerpt from Hart and Risley (1995). That earlier study involved their observing 42 families for an hour each month over the course of 2.5 years “to learn about what typically went on in homes with 1-and 2-year-old children learning to talk” (Hart & Risley, 2003, p. 4). Their study revealed disparities between the number of words spoken by parents to their children as well as the types of messages conveyed. At the conclusion of their 1995 study, Hart and Risley concluded that the differences between parent- child interactions correlated with significant discrepancies in children’s knowledge as well as their skills and experiences—with children from high-income families being exposed to 30 million more words than children from families on welfare. They provided Figure 1 to illustrate their findings. The solid vertical line through the final point of their data (just before 36 months) prior to their extrapolation, intersects the line representing the cumulative number of words addressed to children of professionals at approximately 37 million (top green horizontal line) and 2 Note. Excerpted from Hart and Risley (2003). Figure 1. Data-supported word gap at 36 months. 3 the cumulative number of words addressed to children of welfare recipients at approximately 11 million. Clearly, the difference at 36 months is not 30 million, but apart from the magnitude of the difference, what is striking is the linear growth of the word gap-lending credibility to Hart and Risley’s (2003) extrapolation to 48 months at which point the word gap is well over 30 million. Follow-up studies by Golinkoff et al. (2019) and Logan et al. (2019) showed that these differences in language and interaction experiences correlated with a child’s performance later in life. My experience as an educational leader at Lucky Day Elementary School (LDES, a pseudonym) leads me to suggest that the difference in entry-level language skills constitutes a major hurdle to educational progress for children from lower-income families—especially when they are legislatively prevented from being promoted from grade to grade (The Excellent Public Schools Act, 2021). Although the intent of the promotion restriction legislation and policy was good and intended to prevent social promotion, one result of such legislation has been that the disparity among children in relation to vocabulary and what I suggest are the subsequent effects on achievement—especially in reading—have been compounded. In North Carolina, the Read to Achieve program was “a part of the Excellent Public Schools Act which officially became law in July of 2012 and was implemented in all schools at the beginning of the 2013-14 school year” (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2021, p. 4). Article 8 of Chapter 115C of the North Carolina General Statues includes Part 1A: North Carolina Read to Achieve Program. The state goal of this program “is to ensure that every student read at or above grade level by the end of third grade and continue to progress in reading proficiency so that he or she can read, 4 comprehend, integrate, and apply complex texts needed for secondary education and career success” (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2021, p. 25). In stark contrast to the state goal of the Read to Achieve program, according to the 2019 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) report, only 36% of North Carolina Grade 4 students were proficient in reading (NAEP, 2019). Disaggregated, the data show disparities by race, ethnicity, and income. Forty percent (40%) of White children in North Carolina were reading proficiently, however, only 20% of Black children and 23% of Hispanic children were reading proficiently (NAEP, 2019). For North Carolina children who are eligible for free and reduced lunch (which encompasses 59% of students) only 21% were reading proficiently (NAEP, 2019). Background of Problem of Practice The word gap and its implications for Black male achievement in reading in LDES in first grade is the problem of practice that I will focus on for my study. LDES has a high Black male population and has consistently underperformed other schools in the district. Through analysis of diagnostic data, I intend to verify the existence of the word gap between the Black male students in Grade 1 and their White counterparts, identify possible correlates of the word gap, draw parallels between the word gap and student achievement in reading, and finally implement a potential solution. My study is of importance because of the long-term impact that a slow start with regards to vocabulary can have on student achievement and opportunities both in and beyond school (Hart & Risley, 1995). Context of Study Lucky Day Elementary School is located in Carolina County. Carolina County Public Schools is an urban school district located in southeastern United States. The district has 179 5 total schools and 160,000 students. Lucky Day Elementary School is 1 of 120 elementary schools. It has a high Black male population and has consistently underperformed other elementary schools in the district. The ethnic breakdown at LDES is consistent with the overall demographics of Carolina County Public Schools (CCPS, a pseudonym) as depicted in Table 1. LDES is a K-5 Magnet School in a large urban district in southeastern United States. It is a Center for Global Studies and Spanish Immersion and our vision is to develop and nurture global citizens as we foster diverse relationships, build community, and inspire learners to discover how their strengths can positively impact the world. The Magnet School process in Carolina County Public Schools is designed with four objectives: Reduce high concentrations of poverty, promote school integration, maximize use of school facilities, and provide innovative and/or expanded educational opportunities. There is an application process to be accepted into the magnet program. All students in the school engage in the regular K-5 curriculum provided by the district as well as the magnet focus within the school. As shown in Table 2, the Black male students at Lucky Day Elementary School performed below the district and the state levels on the state administered end-of-grade test, in grades 3-5 combined in reading. Over the course of the past three years, LDES has been provided with various levels of support ranging from direct intervention from central services in CCPS to specific targeted assistance from a coordinating teacher assigned to LDES to work directly with the LDES literacy coach. I selected LDES for my study because, as a district leader, I am in a position to make a positive impact on the problem of practice and based on overall student data which indicates a need to strengthen and support foundational skills and supplement daily instruction in a manner 6 Table 1 Ethnicity Breakdown District/School American Indian Asian Black Hispanic Pacific Islander Two or More Races White CCPSS .3% 10.4% 22.4% 18.6% .1% 3.9% 44.5% LDES - 8.2% 28.3% 22.9% .6% 4.6% 35.3% 7 Table 2 Black Student Achievement at LDES Compared to District and State Race LDES District State All 36% 58% 46% Asian 43% 82% 72% Black 18% 34% 29% Hispanic 25% 33% 33% White 65% 73% 59% Note. 2020-2021 Grade level percent proficient / College and Career Ready (Levels 3, 4, & 5). 8 that is aligned to available resources and state standards. The instructional resources, content, and curriculum at LDES with respect to literacy development conform to the standard that is provided for the entire county (e.g., Letterland and EL Education). In addition, the teacher training for implementation as well as ongoing support for literacy instruction is provided for LDES in the same manner that it is provided for all other schools in the district. However, data suggest that there is a drastic difference in performance at LDES as compared to the remainder of the school district. Table 2 is a comparison between the achievement levels by student ethnicity at the county and school levels. I stumbled upon Hart and Risley’s (1995) research and formally titled my study based on a combination of their work and the direct correlation to the work that is doing with the focus on disproportionality (the disproportionate number of Black male students who are being referred for Special Education Services) with Black males. As mentioned earlier, the primary reason for my focus is to identify strategies to alleviate the word gap among Black male students in grade 1. Once identified, implemented, and found successful this strategy will provide support to teachers to reduce the disproportionate number of Black male students who are being referred for Special Education Services. When a student is referred to Special Education, there are several factors which impact this decision, however, ultimately students who are performing at a substantially lower rate than their peers are typically candidates for this referral. The literacy department in Carolina County in collaboration with Special Education services provides the K-2 literacy coaches in every elementary school in Carolina County with an intentional focus on reducing disproportionality. Specific steps include monthly professional learning for literacy coaches on instructional strategies for Black males, updates on changes in disproportionality by school, and professional learning on English Language Arts (ELA) content. 9 Table 3 depicts a 3-year trend of performance on the end of grade reading tests for grades 3-8 and High School EOC in CCPS. Table 4 depicts a 3-year trend of performance on the end of grade test for LDES. Tables 1 and 2 indicate that although Black students represent 22% of the student population in CCPS, they are performing at a considerably lower rate as compared to their counterparts on standardized tests in grades 3-8. Table 5 indicates that students in grade 1 at LDES is performing at a considerably lower rate with regards to the vocabulary component of the state administered diagnostic assessment and Black males at LDES are performing at an even lower rate than the district and the state. Why this is important is the direction correlation between the vocabulary component of the state administered diagnostic assessment and overall performance. In Figure 2, you will find that there is a direct correlation between vocabulary performance on the state administered diagnostic assessment and overall performance. That is, students who perform well on the vocabulary portion of the assessment will do well on the overall test. Understanding that the state mandates consistent standards for all and assuming that resources and instructional opportunities are consistent across the CCPS, it is evident that there is a need to supplement English Language Arts (ELA) support at LDES. This is apparent by the three year end of grade ELA performance outcomes at LDES as compared to the district. In 2016-17 performance was at 54.7%, in 2017-18 performance was at 55.9%, and in 2018-19 performance was at 51%. For CCPS the three-year end of grade ELA performance outcomes were, in 2016-17 it was 66.3%, in 2017-18 it was 65%, and in 2018-19 it was 64.8%. This puts LDES at an approximately 10% deficit with regards to ELA performance each year compared to district performance. Additionally, the vocabulary performance on the state administered diagnostic assessment comparing LDES and CCPS shows a need for ELA support. At the beginning of the 2021-22 school year CCPS first grade students out performed LDES by 11% 10 Table 3 3-Year Trend of Performance on the End of Grade Test for CCPS Assessment 2016 - 2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 Reading 66.3% 65% 64.8% Math 63.3% 60.3% 62.8% EOG 66.4% 64.6% 65.7% EOC 65.5% 66.5% 63.3% Note. Carolina County Public Schools End of Grade Test 3-Year Trend Data. 11 Table 4 3-Year Trend of Performance on the End of Grade Test for LDES Subject 2016 - 2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 Reading 54.7% 55.9% 51% Math 62.6% 59.5% 56.3% Note. Lucky Day Elementary School End of Grade Test 3-Year Trend Data. 12 Table 5 Grade 1 Data Comparison for Vocabulary Performance on mCLASS Assessment Time of Year CCPS CCPS Black males LDES LDES Black males BOY 60% 39% 49% 38% EOY 56% 36% 44% 25% Note. Black Male proficiency data on mCLASS 21-22 BOY and EOY for LDES, CCSS, LDES Black males, & CCSS Black males. 13 Figure 2. First grade diagnostic correlation between overall performance and vocabulary. 14 and outperformed them at EOY by 12%. The Black males in CCPS at the beginning of the 2021- 22 school year out performed LDES by 1% and by the end of the year out performed LDES by 11%. Focus of Problem of Practice Although student achievement overall at LDES appears to need attention in the area of ELA, the focus of my study is the alleviation of the word gap among Black males in Grade 1 in LDES. Eighty percent (80%) of students that are struggling to read at the end of first grade continue to be struggling readers in fourth grade (Sparks et al., 2014). In addition, 90% of children with reading difficulties will achieve grade level in reading if they receive help by the first grade. (Vellutino et al., 1996). With that, in order to provide equitable access and achievement I propose working with teachers in one specific Grade 1 classroom who will implement specific strategies to supplement daily ELA instruction and provide the students with additional opportunities to practice the skills they are taught in ELA, increase vocabulary exposure, and ultimately improve student achievement. I worked with the Principal at LDES to select a teacher for this study based on criteria which included willingness to participate, a diverse classroom population, and an experienced / seasoned teacher with 10+ years of experience. The teacher selected has a total of 12 years teaching experience. She began her career as a graduate of Shippensburg University with a degree in social work. Additionally she received a teaching certification and masters degree in education from Millersville University. Her experience in social work adds a lens understanding and compassion for equity in marginalized populations. Her initial experience was in inner city Philadelphia where she experienced many things ranging from politically motivated funding cuts to affordable housing constraints on families. Some of her earlier contributions included family 15 and community involvement efforts through at home visits and providing a free afterschool program for students in need. Our experiences are aligned to a degree as I am a product of the inner city school system. My experience in education as a teacher and building administrator has been all in Title 1, federally funded schools based on high free and reduced lunch numbers, schools. I too have spent a great deal of time managing afterschool programs and conducting at home family visits. It is my sincere hope that this study will result in a notable increase in the vocabulary of Black. As a result, this study will provide educators with strategies yielding proven results to increase vocabulary attainment and help to reduce and eliminate the word gap. Understanding that the education system has battled many unfair practices resulting in ideas such the achievement gap and affirmative action, the purpose of this study is to explore what strategies and practices might be implemented with Grade 1 Black males at LDES to explore the use of these strategies in lieu of current instruction or in addition to the current instructional practices. Problem of Practice Study Questions It is my hope that the two questions guiding my study focused on alleviating the word gap between Black males in Grade 1 in LDES and their White counterparts will bring attention to an ongoing issue which begins to surface at the onset of a student’s educational experience. Table 6 outlines the evidence that will be used to support the problem of practice study questions. The questions which will guide my study are: • Research Question 1: How does targeting professional development aligned to students’ vocabulary development increase the quality of a teachers practice in teaching vocabulary? 16 Table 6 Table of Measures Question Measures 1. How does targeting professional development aligned to student’s vocabulary development increase the quality of a teachers practice in teaching vocabulary? Belief survey Teacher interview mCLASS assessment 2. How does targeting professional development for an identified first grade teacher provide her with the knowledge of instructional approaches and specific strategies to increase vocabulary in Black male students? Teacher interview mCLASS assessment Student interest survey results Specific changes in practice Note. Data obtained through various measurement instruments. 17 • Research Question 2: How does targeting professional development for an identified first grade teacher provide her with the knowledge of instructional approaches and specific strategies to increase vocabulary in the black male students in her classroom? Overview of Inquiry To answer the questions in the previous section I intend to use an action research design approach to effect change within identified students who have demonstrated that they are affected by the word gap. More specifically I will use a practical action research approach (a process where educators can reflect, collect data, and create alternative ways to improve their instructional practices) in this study (Schmuch, 2009). My specific problem of practice that I will focus on is the existence of the word gap in Black males upon entry of school. With that given focus, I will select students as my case study to enact specific strategies aligned to vocabulary to decrease and eliminate the word gap. Inquiry Partners In order to effectively engage in this work I will collaborate with many stakeholders for this study. My role in Carolina County Public Schools is Director of Literacy. In this role provide support to Lucky Day Elementary School and Carolina County Public Schools in regards to literacy support, resources and professional development. Thus far I have worked with the principal at Lucky Day Elementary School to gather data on current state of achievement and vocabulary for minority males at Lucky Day Elementary. Along with the Principal, I will work with the literacy coach and instructional facilitator at Lucky Day Elementary School to monitor teacher and student progress as well as provide necessary coaching for the teacher. Perhaps the most important inquiry partner will be the classroom teacher. I will work closely with the teacher to provide necessary professional development in the areas of vocabulary and other aligned 18 instructional practices. The central office ELA team will play an integral role in this study as they will meet regularly with the teacher, coach, and IF to support with resources. In addition, I intend to work with Voyager Sopris, to make necessary connections with the LETRS (Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling) professional development and vocabulary development. In 2022 North Carolina enacted SB387 as part of The Excellent Public Schools Act with the ultimate goal of ensuring that all students are reading on Grade Level by the end of third grade. As part of this legislation, Voyager Sopris was employed to provide LETRS professional learning to all teachers in grades K-5. In conjunction with Voyager Sopris, I will work with NCDPI in order to ensure that policy and legislation is followed with regards to K-5 literacy in the state of North Carolina. Conceptual Framework It is my belief that there are inequities that exist within our education system that begin years prior to entry into kindergarten. In my experience as a teacher and Principal, there are disparities within a kindergarten classroom ranging from a student who is unable to identify a letter to a fluent reader. Universal PreK is a concept that I believe would alleviate these disparities ultimately resulting in a reduction or elimination of the word gap. My study will be based on the conceptual framework in Figure 3. You will notice that I begin by focusing on Black males in grades K-5. Within this focus I will look at factors that impact the word gap in Black males. These include at home resources, SES, community mores, parental education, and meso socio expectations. I will explore how these factors affect literacy skills. More specifically, reading readiness, phonics ability, and vocabulary ultimately leading to the word gap. With that, I will consider instructional factors such as teacher ability along with instructional resources and instructional approaches that reduce the word gap. 19 Figure 3. Conceptual Framework. 20 Definition of Key Terms The following terms are recurring points of reference throughout the study: LETRS – Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling. NCDPI – North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. Word Gap – The existence of a difference in vocabulary across income groups (Hart & Risley, 1995). The Excellent Public Schools Act – A North Carolina bill that establishes the Early Literacy Program within the Department of Public Instruction and states that NCDPI must use the Program to build strong foundational early literacy skills utilizing the Science of Reading to ensure that all students are reading on grade level by the end of Grade 3. AIG – Academically and Intellectually Gifted. ELA – English Language Arts. Assumptions Some natural assumptions that I will encounter in my study is that the information that I receive will be factual. When utilizing surveys or conducting interviews the expectation will be that responses will reflect honesty and truth. Information that is not factual could taint or alter the results of the study. Another assumption is that teachers will implement the strategies and resources provided as intended. When considering program evaluation, one of the most important components in the CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) Evaluation Model is implementation or process evaluation. This asks the question, “is the solution effectively implemented”? If the solution is not implemented as intended, then you really would not have a true picture of its effectiveness. I will also assume that the teacher involved in the study will be keen to the professional development that they will be receiving. If a teacher does not buy into 21 the professional development then they are less likely to implement as intended. Finally, there will be an assumption that the professional development is well designed and effective for this purpose. Misalignment of professional development to the intended outcomes will lead to lack of preparation. Scope and Delimitations My research focus is the word gap that exists between Black males and their counterparts as a result of lack of exposure during their formative years. The scope of this work will be limited to a selected first grade classroom at Lucky Day Elementary School. More specifically, in collaboration with the Principal, we will select a first grade teacher based on data, to provide with professional learning and implementation strategies to improve vocabulary development. Significance of Inquiry This study will involve strategic and intentional implementation of resources based on student data, teacher professional development, and research based best practices. The Word Gap is a phenomenon that has put Black male students at a disadvantage upon entering grade school and unfortunately leaves them staggering behind. The numbers at Lucky Day Elementary school exemplify this disparity. It is my hope that this study will have a notable impact on the students and teachers involved at Lucky Day Elementary School. Specifically, I anticipate that what I will find is an increase in vocabulary performance of Black male students from the beginning-of-the- year diagnostic assessment to the end-of-the-year diagnostic assessment when comparing the 2021-22 school year results with the 2022-23 school year results. The reason this is significant is I hope to uncover specific strategies to impact increased vocabulary, these strategies could perhaps be implemented in other places to impact comparable change. 22 Advancing Equity and Social Justice Impacting change on a large scale and over the long term is the ultimate goal of this study. This amounts to changes in practices overall. In order to ensure that we see different outcomes we have to first change our inputs (practices). In order for these practices to be equitable and positively impact all students they have to align with the individual needs of all students (see Figure 4). There are clear data to indicate that Black students are behind their counterparts in the area of vocabulary. With that in mind, we have to provide a different level of support to these students to bring them up to the level of achievement of their peers. Advances in Practice As mentioned earlier, ideally, I would like to see changes in my study that scale-up to a larger scale and longer term. Additionally, I would like to see changes in how we at Lucky Day Elementary School address individual student needs as they relate to vocabulary. There will need to be pedagogical shifts to advance our educational practices in order to ensure progress for all students. Summary In summary, preliminary data from Lucky Day Elementary School, Carolina County, and the State of North Carolina, along with research from the Word Gap study (Hart & Risley, 1995) indicate a need to provide additional support to our Black male students. Specifically, in order to close the word gap, Black male students need to be provided more intentional instruction to increase word knowledge to a level comparable to their counterparts. In Chapter 2, I will highlight specific research which supports the origin and existence of the word gap along with best practices and strategies to implement both in home and school to reduce and eliminate its 23 Note. This photo by unknown author is licensed under CC BY. Figure 4. Equality vs. equity. 24 existence. I will follow in Chapter 3 with an in depth look at my research. Specifically, I will outline my next steps in my study and what I hope to accomplish both short-and long-term. CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this study is to explore factors that contribute to the curtailed vocabulary attainment of Black males upon entry into elementary school and how this contributes to their achievement in school and beyond. In my review of literature, I will make a connection in understanding the contributing factors and challenges faced by Black males both socially and academically. This review of the literature will consist of the following topics: the current state of the Black male, Black males in public education, contributing factors of Black male achievement and the word gap, and teacher behavior and student performance. I will dive deeper into research studies on reading to include a review of the literature related to effective instructional strategies in reading. In addition, the conclusion will present a discussion of the major themes found in the literature as well as a summary of the critical studies related to this topic. The research strategies used in conducting this literature review included finding peer- reviewed journal articles as well as other scholarly publications such as books, dissertation studies, and research reports. Current State of Black Males In order to adequately address the word gap, I feel it is important to have some context about the long-term and systemic ramifications of Black male student performance over time. This context will make the connection but more importantly it will highlight the importance of this study and the why. For many years, studies have focused on the less than desired state of Black males. In one example, an issue in the Journal of Negro Education focused on the under educational attainment of Black males (Joe & Davis, 2009; Rowley & Bowman, 2009). The long-term trend for Black males leaves them falling behind, when it comes to their income and 26 personal wealth, educational status, and high school graduation rates (Moore & Lewis, 2014). In addition, the percentages of Black males in prison and high school dropouts are astronomically disproportional to their percentage in the population (Moore & Lewis, 2014). Black males lead the nation in homicides, both as victims and perpetrators, and in addition, they now have the fastest growing rate for suicide. In the labor market, they are the least likely to be hired and in many cities, the most likely to be unemployed (Greer et al., 2022). In a 2005 National Assessment of Educational Progress Report, 14% of Black children scored proficient or above compared to 43% of White children, with this academic gap continuing from fourth to eighth grade. You will also find racial disparities in the population of students who are identified as gifted and talented. In most instances, Asian and White students are overrepresented in the gifted and talented classes compared to their Black peers. Specifically one 1997 K-12 Gifted and Talented data shows Asians and Whites comprised 3.1% and 64% of the PreK-12 classroom population but comprised 6.6% and 76.6% of the gifted and talented program. When you look at Black children comparatively, they made up 17% of the PreK-12 classroom population and were underrepresented in the gifted and talented program at 6.6%. Traditionally, boys are underrepresented in gifted and talented programs which therefore would mean that Black are underrepresented in this program. There are many factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of Black children in gifted and talented programs, including actual lower performance and the use of disciplinary practices that tend to be biased and not culturally responsive or relevant, which result in students being misjudged, overdisciplined, and Black males having their access to opportunities that address their strengths or needs restricted (National Research Council, 2002); teacher perception, and inability to recognize, refer, and identify gifted and talented Black males (McBee, 2006); use of inappropriate instruments to 27 gauge academic potential (i.e., using instruments that rely heavily on verbal skills to assess general cognitive abilities); and failure to use multiple sources of information and types of measures (Coleman & Shah-Coltrane, 2015). What is often not positively reflected in the literature are the many Black males who graduate from high school, attend college, graduate with college and advanced degrees, are identified as gifted and talented (Aud et al., 2010). More specifically, over 23% of Black males have some college education, with 16% of them with an undergraduate or graduate degree. The graduation rates for African American males tend to range from 47% to 80% as of 2007 (Aud et al., 2010). Black Males in Public Education Since the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954, educational gains in academic achievement for public school students have been monitored and recorded; with that, the trend in public education has been the overidentification of Black males often to special education or vocational nonacademic classes that are neither intellectual or challenging (Oakes, 1985). In Savage Inequalities, Kozol (1991) identifies our educational system as being unequal. Specifically with regards to Black students, they overwhelmingly are instructed from teachers who lack experience, motivation, resources, and/or enthusiasm to effectively engage students in the learning process. Additionally, the majority of Black students attend school in facilities that physically unappealing and inferior when compared to their counterparts as well as both racially and economically isolated. Another unfortunate circumstance regarding teachers of Black male students is exposed by Scott et al. (2008) where they state that Black students are often educated by teachers of different ethnic, race, and cultural backgrounds. In fact, approximately 87% of the elementary, middle, and high school teachers are European American, while 8% of teachers in the same grade span are African American. 28 According to the American Civil Liberties Union, there are several factors leading to the school to prison pipeline (The school to prison pipeline is a disturbing national trend wherein youth are funneled out of the public schools and into the juvenile and criminal legal systems). According to the ACLU (https://www.aclu.org/issues/juvenile-justice/juvenile-justice-school- prison-pipeline), these factors include inadequate resources in public schools, zero-tolerance behavior policies, and overly harsh disciplinary policies that push students down the pipeline and into the juvenile justice system. In addition to factors mentioned by ACLU, academic disconnection, a lack of connection with learning, critically hurts Black male students’ academic performance and causes withdrawal from school, dropping out, or delinquency (Hawkins-Jone & Reeves, 2020). Black male students, in particular-experience higher levels of academic disconnection, which has been proven to cause or contribute to low performance. Winn and Behizadeh (2011) contend that childhood poverty, the lack of early childhood education, and the denial of a college-preparatory K–12 education promoting critical literacies have contributed to the school-to-prison pipeline. Further, if youth in underserved and underperforming schools were lead by the belief that literacy is a right as opposed to schools that focus more on discipline policies as opposed to academic rigor they would benefit and thrive academically (Winn & Behizadeh, 2011). “Unequal life chances” among America’s children and the denial of literacy as a civil right are two ways African American and Latino youth are placed into the school-to- prison pipeline (Winn & Behizadeh, 2011). The reality that we find when we examine issues such as lack of preparation, dropout rates, and the discipline or punishment gap is that they help contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline. Those who are subject to this pipeline, hear a message that their lives are disposable and that detention centers, jails, and prisons have somehow become an expected part of their life cycle. In order to disrupt this fate, specific 29 practices that focus on collaborating with youth to foster critical literacy, such as students performing their writing, students conducting research with adult allies, and students having forums where their voices, ideas, and lived experiences can be heard should be considered (Winn & Behizadeh, 2011). According to the NAEP (2005) report it was indicated that the average reading scale score for Black eighth grade students was 243 while the average for European American eighth graders was 271. In addition, studies have noted that different learning opportunities result in differing achievement outcomes for students. In “From Kindergarten through Third Grade”, Rathbun et al. (2004) noted that Black children were found to have lower overall reading achievement scores than other ethnic groups. They also noted that in addition to low achievement, Black male students are found at the top of the list of every indicator of school failure, including dropout, absenteeism, suspension and expulsion. Johnson (2008) maintained that Black male students need specific things in order to achieve success academically. They must have guidance and an opportunity to develop a positive sense of self and ethnic identity and they have to come to see themselves as intellectually and effectively competent in both academic and social circles. In order to receive this guidance, the adults in the building must believe that they are capable. Lack of funding and adequate resources in high poverty schools help attribute to the lack of preparation to be successful academically. In 1994, five school districts in low-wealth counties along with families filed a lawsuit against the state (Leandro v. State of North Carolina, 1997) arguing that their school districts did not have enough money to provide an equal education for their children, despite the fact that they taxed their residents high than average. The Supreme Court ruled that North Carolina has a constitutional obligation to ensure all children 30 have access to a sound basic education that includes competent and well-trained teachers and principals, as well as equitable access to sufficient resources. In his work, Kunjufu (1986) believed that the public school system contributes most to the destruction of the Black male. He went on to claim that educational institutions have established policies and practices that limit Black males from equal access to high-quality educational experiences. These policies include but are not limited to legislation, tracking, special education, and standardized testing. Some of the behaviors that teachers use to refer students to special education are being off-task during assignments, poor attention span, lack of attention span, and being passive aggressive (Natesan et al., 2008). Unfortunately these behaviors are often misunderstood and misinterpreted and the result of this misunderstanding causes teachers to easily give up on their students, lower expectations, and focus their attention on referring the students to special education. In addition, Kunjufu notes that the underachievement of the Black male student begins as early as the fourth grade. In a study, Holland (1991) highlights the academic and social challenges that Black male students face. For example, from 1986 to 1987, Black male students represented 48% of the public-school population; however, they accounted for 57.7% of grade level retentions, 65% of suspensions, 80% of expulsions, and 45% of dropouts. With that, Holland (1991) came to three conclusions: (a) of the 1,470 retained first graders, 817 were Black male students; (b) of the 768 retained second graders, 440 were Black male students; and (c) of the 716 retained third graders, 438 were Black male students. With that, policy practices, the social organization of schools, grouping practices, curriculum choices, and methods of instruction are rooted in the beliefs about how the differences between and among students should be addressed. According to Sleeter and Grant (1994), educators and legislatures acquired a belief that Black male students had 31 unwarranted discipline problems and academic deficiencies. As a result, this perspective results in a disproportionate number of Black male students mislabeled as mentally retarded, assigned to special education classes, and frequently identified as discipline problems. In his study, Irvine (1990) introduced the concept of cultural synchronization, which is the understanding and assimilated value of different cultures as it relates to teacher perceptions of student achievement and social issues, as a critical component of motivating Black students to achieve. According to Irvine, studies investigating teacher-student interactions within the classroom indicate that race/ethnicity, gender, and social class can influence learning. To be more specific, an experienced and effective teacher of any racial background is more preferable for Black male students than an ineffective teacher of Black decent. In addition, Fashola (2005) notes that a Black teacher who educates Black males has several important advantages, including modeling appropriate behavior, using shared knowledge strategically, building on common social experiences, providing value-added interest in academic and non-academic subjects, and establishing rapport with Black male students. One of the major reasons cited for the lack of engagement of Black males in the schooling process is the feeling that there is no connection to the institution itself. According to Tatum (2005), for many Black male students, school is viewed as a place where they feel unknown, unconnected, and where they experience failure. Lee and Loeb (2000) suggested a strategy from a systems and structures standpoint that could support Black male student achievement. They recommend breaking large schools down into smaller learning communities by establishing interdisciplinary teams of teachers with common planning time which will allow new patterns of relationships to develop. For example, when large poorly managed schools are restructured into self-contained, smaller communities, expectations for teachers and students can 32 be altered as a result of the structural shift. The impact of these smaller schools on the achievement particularly for Black male students is critical, due to the bonding element in terms of day-to-day interaction with students. Lee and Loeb also noted that one-on-one relationships between educators and students facilitate the creation of a new culture and climate within the school. This shift will address the sense of belonging that is felt to be missing by Black male students within the educational environment. Fashola (2005) argued that providing educational after-school programs in a school-based setting provides Black male students with qualified teachers and trained staff who can work with much smaller groups of children to enrich their experiences in the areas of academic, cultures, and social interaction with peers. Fashola noted that structured after school programs, flexibility of choice, positive environments, and continuous evaluation of program goals contribute to positive outcomes in afterschool settings. In a study evaluating the effectiveness of after school programs using the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (KBIT) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (KTEA), students at the end of the 2-year program increased daily attendance, decreased discipline referrals, and had no suspensions or expulsions (Martin et al., 2007). Therefore, in serving Black male students in the after-school settings, Fashola pointed out that it is important to understand the following psychological process: (a) the first step involves understanding the feelings of the Black male child and the factors that foster feelings of failure and isolation, (b) the second step is to identify factors in the school setting that may or may not create these feelings and to ensure the behavioral results of these factors, and (c) the third step is to find alternatives that will bring together the targeted population and the service providers and create dynamics of academic success. In another study, Hudley (1992) addressed the causes of feelings of academic inadequacy and of academic success in Black male students. Hudley 33 examined the feelings of pride, anger, and guilt among school-aged Black male students, ages 16 to19, and found that individual success in situations outside of school prevailed over school or academic success as a source of pride. Hudley also found that Black students who were placed in positions of responsibility elicited success. Fashola (2005) highlights that after-school programs seeking to develop the talents of Black male students should possess a deep understanding of the populations that they work with and attempt to understand effective ways to stimulate students cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally. For example, there is evidence suggesting that after- school programs can have significant positive effects on social adjustments, social skills, and academic achievement. Analysis of the effects of after-school programs on Black students showed that students who had been involved in after-school programs performed better at the end of the year in reading, math, and other subjects and had better conduct. In addition, positive staff members and positive peer interactions positively influenced the transition of Black male students from the regular school day to the after-school program. Contributing Factors to the Word Gap Lack of Early Foundational Skills In most instances the achievement gap findings for low-income Black children is already present in kindergarten, due in part to limited opportunities for acquiring foundational skills necessary for school success (Calzada et al., 2015). Past Studies have shown differences, prior to kindergarten entry, with African American boys; they are seen as less academically prepared compared to their White peers, especially in early literacy, language, and numeracy skills (Moore & Lewis, 2014). Lack of classroom participation and poor performance are directly aligned to school preparation. When students are adequately prepared to enter school and engage in the learning 34 process, this confidence increases participation and engagement, which results in high achievement. According to Finn's participation–identification model of engagement (see Figure 4), participation facilitates positive academic performance, which in turn promotes a sense of belonging and identification with school and learning; belonging and identification then promote ongoing participation. In order to participate initially, students must feel that they have the skills and foundation to engage in learning successfully. Opportunities for participation change as students progress through the educational system. Initially, successful participation may involve attending school and being prepared for class; in later years, class preparation requires greater effort (e.g., homework, outside projects), and there are more opportunities to participate in nonacademic aspects of school, such as band, clubs, or other extracurricular activities (see Figure 5). Ideally, a student will arrive at school initially with the attitudes, behaviors, and skills necessary to be successful in the school environment. They participate, are successful, identify with school and feel like they belong, and continue to participate. Although these students may encounter some difficulties along the way, the cycle of participation–success–belonging– participation begins with adequate preparation initially beginning school and if appropriately nurtured along the way, continues as expected, placing students on the path toward successful school completion (Reschly, 2009). However, some students do not enter school with the requisite behaviors and skills necessary for successful participation and academic performance (Reschly, 2009). In this instance, over time, the cycle of participation and identification/belonging at school and with learning erodes. These students are less successful when they participate and eventually are less likely to demonstrate increased and varied forms of participation in the school environment. 35 Figure 5. Finn's participation–identification model of engagement. 36 They are therefore more likely to develop feelings of alienation. Over years, this process can be characterized as one of gradual disengagement from the school environment that, if not addressed, may culminate in the student dropping out of school (Reschly, 2009). Reading proficiency is a cumulative process that develops from birth and is rooted in early brain development long before a child enters kindergarten (The Campaign For Grade Level Reading, 2022). Early literacy and later reading success are linked as a young child’s ability to talk, listen and understand spoken and written words leads to later literacy achievement in reading, writing, and spelling (The Campaign For Grade Level Reading, 2022). Reading in the early grades predicts high school success. Those who read well go on to graduate, but those who aren’t reading well by the end of third grade are four times more likely to drop out of high school (NAEP, 2019). According to the 2019 NAEP Report, only 36% of NC 4th graders are proficient in reading. Disaggregated, the data clearly shows disparities by race, ethnicity, and income. Forty percent (40%) of White children in NC are reading proficiently, however, only 20% of Black children and 23% of Hispanic children are reading proficiently. For NC children who are eligible for free or reduced lunch (which encompasses 59% of students) only 21% are reading proficiently. Nationally, students in higher-income families are making gains at a rate nearly twice that of students in low-income families. White male students nationwide are three times more likely to be reading proficiently in the fourth grade than their African-American peers, and more than twice as likely to be reading proficiently as Hispanic boys (NAEP, 2019). School Readiness Just as there is an achievement gap in school performance, there is also a school readiness gap that exists and similarly separates low-socioeconomic children from their more affluent peers. O’Donnell et al. (2008) found that as early as 18 months, low-income children begin to 37 fall behind in vocabulary development and other skills critical for school success. Parents, daycare providers, preschools, and the community all play a role in closing this gap. Some factors that impact this lack in readiness include: 1. Sixty-one percent (61%) of low-income children have no children’s books at home. 2. By age 2, poor children are already behind their peers in listening, counting, and other skills essential to literacy. 3. By age 5, a typical middle-class child recognizes 22 letters of the alphabet, compared to 9 for a child from a low-income family. This study, highlighted in Figure 6, shows that learning begins long before a child enters kindergarten. Children, even infants soak up words, rhymes, songs, and images. Vocabulary development is particularly important. A child’s health, and the timely recognition of developmental delays, is another critical aspect of school readiness. Doctors, care providers, and preschool teachers play a key role (O’Donnell et al., 2008). Where letter sound recognition, counting, reading, and writing are all factors that contribute to the lack of school readiness, one additional factor connected to school readiness is vocabulary (Child Trends, 2012). Reading is broken down into five main areas: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. In order for a student to learn to read successfully and experience reading success, all five components must be in acquired, in place, and functioning well (The Brain Recovery Project, 2018). Vocabulary is knowing the meanings and pronunciations of words (The Brain Recovery Project, 2018). For example, the word shop can mean: a store, supermarket, boutique, as well as to browse, purchase, buy, look for. Vocabulary is broken down into two main parts: Expressive vocabulary: words the child uses to express himself when speaking or writing. This includes speaking vocabulary and writing 38 Figure 6. Selected school readiness skills. 39 vocabulary (The Brain Recovery Project, 2018). Speaking vocabulary is the words we use when we speak. Our speaking vocabulary is relatively limited! Most adults use only 5,000 to 10,000 words for all their conversations and instructions. Writing vocabulary are words we use when we write and is largely dependent spelling ability. Receptive vocabulary: All words understood by the child, including spoken, written, or signed words (The Brain Recovery Project, 2018). These include listening and reading vocabulary. Listening vocabulary are words we understand. By the time we reach adulthood, most of us will recognize and understand close to 50,000 words (The Brain Recovery Project, 2018). Reading vocabulary are words we understand when we read text or sign language. One of the most influential studies regarding the impact of the acquisition of words during the early years was done by Hart and Risley (2003). The 30-million-word gap is a term that refers to the fewer number of words that children from lower-income families heard compared to their age peers in more affluent families. According to Hart and Risley children in lower income families heard 30 million fewer words than children from higher-income families hear by the time they were 4 years old. The official title of their study, The Early Catastrophe: The 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3. Initially, Hart and Risley set out to take a deeper look at the home targeting two things in mind; What difference does home-life make in a child’s ability to communicate and what are the alarming vocabulary gaps between high school student from low and high income environments seemingly foreshadowed by their performance in preschool? In their study, researchers Hart and Risley (2003) entered the homes of 42 families from various socio-economic backgrounds to assess the ways in which daily exchanges between a parent and child shape language and vocabulary development. They found disparities between the number of words spoken as well as the types of messages conveyed. After a four year span 40 the differences that they found produced even more discrepancies in children’s knowledge as well as their skills and experiences with children from high-income families being exposed to 30 million more words than children from families on welfare. Eighty-six percent (86%) to 98% of the words used by each child by the age of three were derived from their parents’ vocabularies. In addition it was found that the words that the children used were identical to the words of their parents as well as the average number of words utilized, the duration of their conversations, and the speech patterns. Children from families on welfare heard about 616 words per hour, while those from working class families heard around 1,251 words per hour, and those from professional families hear roughly 2,153 words per hour. The Hart and Risley (2003) study sparked many questions and motivated further studies to either support or deny the claim that children from low-socioeconomic homes hear far fewer words from their parents than their age peers in high-socioeconomic homes. In their study, Golinkoff et al. (2019) highlights the fact that language is causally implicated in most of what children learn in the first years of life. They drew attention to the finding that kindergarten language scores are the single best predictor of school achievement in all subjects in third and fifth grade (Golinkoff et al., 2019). Further, they asserted, children who have better language have better self-control. In the Language in Little Ones study it was found that a socioeconomic word gap emerges between the ages of 12 and 18 months (Brushe et al., 2020). Families from low educated backgrounds decreased the amount they spoke to their children between 6 and 18 months, compared to families from high educated backgrounds whose quantity of talk remained the same during the same period. This lack of language exposure would have to have a long term impact on vocabulary acquisition because mathematically there is a group of children hearing 41 and internalizing fewer words. This finding suggests that early interventions and implementation of consistent early universal programs that encourage parents to talk more to their child should occur prior to 18 months of age (Brushe et al., 2020). Beliefs, Teacher Behavior, and Student Performance Raz and Beatty (2018) argue for a universal, non-stigmatizing approach to enhancing childhood literacy and propose using a positive framework of language building to replace the concept of a word gap (Raz & Beatty, 2018). Raz and Beatty (2018) do not outright refute the idea that a word gap exists, rather their concern is with the stigmatizing apparent within the study and the negative impact that it may have on teacher beliefs and expectations. Researchers found evidence that reliance on the concept of a word gap negatively impacted how educators viewed children of low income, minority children, and children who are linguistically diverse (Raz & Beatty, 2018). According to Henson (2002), the social cognitive theory developed by Bandura (1997) assumes that people are capable of intentional pursuit of courses of action which operates in a process called triadic reciprocal causation. With that, efficacy beliefs are best measured in degrees from high to low. Individuals with high efficacy beliefs about their ability to successfully complete given tasks will generally perform well on these tasks while others with lower efficacy beliefs for specific tasks tend to become idle or give up when faced with these tasks (Schunk, 2000). Schunk found that efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies are task specific and that both these beliefs and expectancies may be manipulated and controlled. Thus, when an individual with low efficacy beliefs is expected to perform well at a task that carries a high expectancy, the result is often poor performance, resulting in additional stress to the individual. However, Schunk argued, because these beliefs and expectancies may be controlled 42 or manipulated, it is possible to create an environment in which individual beliefs may be changed from low to high, and outcome expectancies may be changed in the same way. The study of efficacy beliefs has led to findings, Henson (2002) argued, that self-efficacy beliefs are related to academic performance and self-regulated learning. Teacher beliefs have been found to develop over time as specific tasks are completed. Henson also noted that experienced teachers often find it hard to alter their efficacy beliefs because these beliefs have become solidified after years of teaching; on the other hand, pre-service and inexperienced teachers typically find it easier to alter their efficacy beliefs. Teachers with low efficacy beliefs often find it difficult to teach to the individual needs of their students. The learning challenges of students can be seen insurmountable, and as Kruger (1997) suggested, a teacher’s attitude toward such challenges often impedes the resolution. In contrast, teachers who were found to be highly efficacious in their teaching beliefs and strategies typically found it easier to both confront and correct educational pitfalls in the classroom (Ashington, 1984). Henson (2002) noted that teachers with higher senses of self-efficacy tended to experiment with methods of instruction, sought improved teaching methods, and experimented with methods of instruction materials. Pintrich and Schunk (1996), in their research on the efficacy beliefs of students, suggested that showing an interest in schools tasks, becoming excited about tasks, and thinking about these tasks are indicators of student motivation. According to Pajares and Miller (1994), when a student’s self-concept, or belief about ability, is presented on an efficacy belief scale, efficacy measures, unlike self-concept, tend to predict outcomes. Zimmerman (2000) argued that highly efficacious students possess characteristics such as persistence, diligence, and a strong willingness to participate in class activities leading to more learning and better achievement. 43 Students with high academic and self-efficacy are more likely to ask for help and are not fearful that other students will label them as incapable (Marchland & Skinner, 2007). In addition, Johnson (2005) argued that instructional activities that require students to set goals will help facilitate self-evaluation, and tracking progress will increase student self-efficacy. Much of the current research in the area of reading instruction has focused on the role of comprehension, and some of the studies on teacher self-efficacy have contributed to improved proficiency of readers (Bandura, 1997; Ladson-Billing, 1994; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). In relationship to self-efficacy regarding reading motivation, a study was conducted using the Early Literacy Motivation Scale (ELMS). Wilson and Training (2007) found that cross factor correlations indicated a significant relationship between self-efficacy and self-perceptions in reading for the primary grades. Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) also found that students who become proficient readers do so through multiple comprehension strategies. They concluded that successful modeling of comprehension strategies by the teacher leads to eventual self-selection of reading strategies that help students become avid and fluent readers. According to Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2003), teacher self-efficacy has also been linked to student ability to appropriately select and execute reading and comprehension strategies. In addition, Allington (2001) noted that highly efficacious teachers are more likely to be in environments that are conducive to successful reading comprehension strategy instruction and to achieve success with their students on standardized test. According to Vygotsky (1978), humans use tools, such as speech and writing that are developed from their culture to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions and as ways to communicate needs; however, Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools would lead to the use of higher thinking skills. This idea is also connected to variables associated with 44 student ability to perform under adult guidance. In fact, a study by Johnson and Johnson (1989) on teacher and student efficacy involving 42 teachers and 400 students concluded that the expectations set by the teacher with strong beliefs made a significant difference with scores ranging from .7076 to .7904 relating to efficacy beliefs. The outcome expectancies had scores of .6166 to .8706. Table 7 describes this teacher efficacy in relation to student outcomes. Thernstrom and Thernstrom (2003) also cited teacher expectations as a part of the Pygmalion effect in helping Grade 1 and 2 students reach high academic expectations. However, the pattern was not as evident for students in Grades 3 to 6. Thernstrom and Thernstrom cited a Harris survey indicating that 80% of teachers in schools with at least a 66% minority student population believed that all children can learn as compared with 82% of those in schools with fewer minority students. The Pygmalion Effect also has a vicious effect on students who do not believe that their teachers think they can learn. For example, the Harris survey highlighted the negative perception of teacher influence, stating that 42% of African American students do not believe teachers care about the quality of work they present while only 36% of European American students believe that teachers are not concerned about the quality of work presented. Furthermore, lower expectations can lower self-esteem and alienate students from school. For example, in one study in Tennessee, student achievement was found to be higher for students who were assigned to teachers of the same ethnic background. A study of K-3 students found that African American students who had African American teachers outperformed those students in reading and math who had European American teachers by 4 to 5 percentile points (Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). 45 Table 7 Teacher Efficacy and Student Outcomes in Reading Efficacy and Outcomes Student Teacher Efficacy beliefs Prior knowledge .7076 .7786 Self-monitoring .7045 .8853 Cooperative learning .8849 .7328 Graphic organizers .8183 .7904 Outcome expectancies Prior knowledge .6166 .7403 Self-monitoring .6658 .7403 Cooperative learning .7790 .8189 Graphic organizers .7739 .8706 Note. Values indicate standard error of relationships regarding teacher efficacy and student outcomes. (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). 46 According to Fashola (2005), there are three types of bias in the perceptions and expectations of teachers that contribute to the academic achievement of African American male students: unconditional race neutral, conditional race neutral, and conditioned or unobserved potential. Unconditional race neutrality requires that perceptions, expectations, and behaviors be uncorrelated with race. By this definition, an unbiased perception, expectation, or treatment has the same average value for all racial groups. This benchmark for racial bias is the standard in experimental studies. The typical findings in such studies are that teachers are racially biased. Racial neutrality conditioned assumes that a teacher’s perceptions or expectations are unbiased if they are based on legitimate observable predictors of performance, such as student’s past grades, test grades, attitudes about school, and beliefs about personal ability. The benchmark in this case is only conditionally race neutral; if past performance is correlated with race, so will the benchmark. According to Fashola, bias is the difference between the actual perception or expectation and the benchmark. Racial neutrality conditioned on potential is the bias of the perception or estimation of a person’s full potential. The full potential benchmark equals demonstrated plus latent potential. The alleged racial bias is that people underestimate latent potential more for African Americans than European Americans. Fashola argued that this self- fulfilling prophecy is a type of bias that is based on expectations that sustain past trends. In another study, Jussim et al. (1996) examined how racial differences impact teacher perceptions on test scores. Teacher perceptions of the current performance, talent, and effort in math of 1,664 sixth graders were collected during the 1982-1983 school year by the Michigan Educational Assessment Program. Jussim et al. (1996) found no evidence of racial bias; the coefficient on student race was small and insignificant. However, the estimated impact of teacher perceptions was almost three times greater for African Americans as for European Americans. 47 Furthermore, Jussim et al. (1996) found that the effects were cumulative for disadvantaged or stigmatized students; African American children from low-income backgrounds experienced the effects of both race and income. Weinstein (1985) also found that teachers were less flexible in their expectations for African American, females and for students from low-income households. Weinstein speculated that minority status may play a role in the vulnerability with which students respond to teacher expectations. He also argued that differences in cultural values may serve to immunize some children from the impact of teacher views of their performance or heighten their susceptibility to the dominant viewpoint. A series of experiments were conducted by Taylor (1979) to analyze the treatment of African American students by college students in teacher training. Taylor found that when these phantom students were defined as African American, they received briefer feedback after mistakes, less positive feedback after correct responses, and fewer helpful hints. Taylor noted that each of these experimental studies suggested that some teachers may be helping European Americans more than African Americans, and the difference may be large enough to have non-trivial effects on performance. Strategies for Success There are many factors pointing to various reasons for the disproportionate number of Black males that have low achievement academically in schools, have high incidences of discipline and suspension in schools, and ultimately result in suspension. Providing ongoing cultural proficiency training designed to help teachers and administrators with African American males (e.g., how to be more patient with, supportive of, and personable and caring toward them; how to be more evenhanded in discipline) could potentially pay dividends of improved Black 48 male achievement, teacher–student relationships, and boys’ perceptions of their schools (Greer et al., 2022). Learning Forward, the professional learning association, identifies three specific factors that must be included in quality professional development. These factors are rigorous content for each learner, transformational processes, and conditions for success (Learning Forward, 2022). In my study I would like to explore and address this issue with strategic professional learning and implementation of intentional vocabulary strategies targeted at a group of Black males in first grade. In my study I chose to address this issue in this manner because of the impressionable age and grade of a first grade student as well as the vital point that this grade is critical to language and vocabulary acquisition. In addition, there is research to support that Black males benefit from instruction and interventions focused on discrete reading skills, supplemental reading instruction, and research-based practices found to have a positive effect size on reading, writing, and language development (Tatum et al., 2021). North Carolina legislators have recognized this and have taken measures to provide consistency statewide with the ultimate goal of ensuring that all students are reading on or above grade level by the end of third grade. The Read to Achieve legislation includes seven components to ensure that the goal of this legislation is met (NCDPI, 2021). These components are: Comprehensive Plan for Reading Achievement, Early Learning Inventory, Facilitating Early Grade Reading Proficiency, Elimination of Social Promotion, Successful Reading Development for Retained Students, Notification Requirements to Parents and students, and Accountability Measures. In an act to modify the original law the NC Senate enacted SB387 (The Excellent Public Schools Act of 2021) designed specifically to include professional development for all PreK-5 teachers on the Science of Reading (North Carolina Read to Achieve Law, 2021). LETRS (Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading 49 and Spelling) is the designated professional learning that will be provided by Voyager Sopris to all stakeholders included in the legislation. The implementation of LETRS is a strategy included in the Read to Achieve legislation. As the legislation’s main objective is to ensure that all students are reading proficiently on grade level by the end of third grade. LETRS strengthens teachers' knowledge of language structure, the development of the reading brain, and how to nurture the development of foundational literacy skills such as decoding and language comprehension. Research shows that only 35% of students are reading proficiently, but 95% of students CAN learn to read. And while teachers are the most essential factor in student success, only about half of teaching institutions effectively prepare teachers for literacy instruction. LETRS training is an investment in teachers' literacy knowledge as teachers gain essential skills to master the fundamentals of literacy instruction required to apply and transform student learning. In addition, LETRS for Early Childhood Educators (PreK teachers) provides deep knowledge of literacy instruction for the youngest learners. The more children know about language and literacy before they begin kindergarten and first grade, the better equipped they are to succeed in reading and beyond (Moats et al., 2019). Based on Hart and Risley’s study, Laura Colker highlights specific early interventions to address the issue of the word gap (Colker, 2014). Specifically she names the following strategies to help preschoolers build their vocabulary: ● Use new and interesting words in natural conversations. ● Use gestures and facial expressions to help children make sense of new words. ● Sing with children and recite poetry and rhymes to introduce vocabulary. ● Talk with children and encourage children to talk with one another. 50 ● Read to children daily, taking time to go over new words. ● Look for books with illustrations that provide clues to word meanings. ● Think about new vocabulary words that might come up on a field trip. ● Give children ample time to learn the meaning and uses of new words. ● Encourage families to talk with their children and share new vocabulary words. ● Make sure that all children have opportunities to learn and understand new words. In addressing why the 30-million-word gap should not be abandoned, Golinkoff et al. (2019) addressed three issues: whether there is a language gap; the characteristics of speech that promote language development; and the importance of language in school achievement. They emphasized both language exposure as well as intentionality of words shared as opposed to simple exposure to overheard words. To their way of thinking, overheard speech does not support early language learning because language growth requires much more than words passing children’s ears. Exposure to overheard speech will not contribute to closing the persistent, average language lag found between children from lower income homes and those from middle-and upper-income homes. They referred to what were then new analyses of child directed speech that suggested that quantity per se is not as useful to young children as is the quality of speech. For example, when parents read to children and talk to them about the focus of their attention, children acquire more than just language. They acquire concepts and general knowledge that are essential to listening and reading comprehension. In this way, caregivers’ conversations with children impact early language learning, school readiness, and ultimately school success. The emphasis, Golinkoff et al. asserted, should be on creating interventions in which nurturing adults converse with children on topics of interest to the children; overheard speech lacks the richness necessary for helping children link the language they hear to the world. 51 Many studies related to The Word Gap focus on vocabulary development through conversations. In “When Children Are Not Read to at Home: The Million Word Gap,” Logan et al. (2019) researched another avenue by which words are acquired. Children’s book reading sessions have demonstrated significant correlational and causal influences on children’s vocabulary development, however national data suggest that around 25% of caregivers never read with their children. Further, in a sample of 8,900 children aged 4 years, about one-fourth of children were reportedly never read to (23%), about one-fourth were read to seldom (once or twice weekly), and the remainder were read to 3 or more times per week. The aim of the Logan et al. (2019) study was to determine how the variability in home- reading frequency potentially contributed to the Word Gap. Their study included three specific areas of focus: determining how many words children hear during a typical reading session, identifying general patterns of home-reading frequency for children from birth to 5 years of age, and calculating the expected differences in word exposure in the first 5 years as a function of these general patterns. Their findings estimated that children who are never read to are exposed to nearly 300,000 words fewer than children who are read to once daily from birth to 5 years of age. In addition, the difference in word exposure for children who are never or infrequently read to and children who are read to multiple times each day corresponded to a difference in the cumulative word exposure of well over 1,000,000 words. Based on findings from their study, Logan et al. (2019) suggested that adult-child shared book reading during the first 5 years of life may help to eradicate the Word Gap. They proposed that adult-child shared reading provided a context for joint engagement, which served as a conduit for vocabulary development, and offered a richer lexical reservoir compared with adult- child conversations. 52 Interventions that affect children’s vocabulary development focus on the quality of language as well as quantity. Children need opportunities to talk, use vocabulary words, and respond to adults’ questions. Adults need to create opportunities for children to talk, provide quality feedback on children’s language, and use a lot of new vocabulary repeatedly in meaningful contexts. Not every conversation a child has with caregivers can include all or even most of these facets of quality. Yet, because the vocabulary gap is so difficult to close, young children who are at-risk need the strongest early experiences that we can provide, grounded in decades of high-quality empirical research on this topic. Solutions for the word gap need to emphasize the content of conversations and the types of word learning, in the hope that our nation can ameliorate the “word gap” that is fueling the achievement gap (Wasik & Hindman, 2015). Research shows that several principles (highlighted below) describe children’s vocabulary learning (Wasik & Hindman, 2015). 1. Children need repeated exposures to new words in order to learn them — sometimes as many as 200 exposures. 2. These exposures are most helpful if they include explicit definitions of words, perhaps including a picture or prop. 3. Children benefit when they can clearly connect a word’s meanings to their own background knowledge and experience. For example, a parent might say, “A zebra is similar to a horse, like the one we saw at the park last week, but it has a very special striped coat.” 53 4. Children learn more new words when they’re presented in a meaningful context, rather than as isolated facts. For example, words could be introduced via a storybook reading and follow-up learning activities. 5. Children learn words best when they’re exposed to a relatively high density of novel words relative to total words, likely because this introduces children to more novel terms and may draw their attention to words more generally. For example, in the Harvard Home-School Study children learned more new words when the adults around them used more complex vocabulary and inferential talk, such as predicting what might happen next in a story. 6. There is strong evidence that children benefit from the opportunity to use these words themselves and to receive specific feedback from adults on their understanding and pronunciation. This might include asking children to label things. For example, when encountering a zebra in a book, a parent might point to the picture of that animal and ask, “What’s this?” or “Is this a zebra?” — and then praise accurate responses or gently correct misunderstandings. More challenging are open-ended questions in which adults prompt children to use a new word in the context of a multiword response to which there is more than one right answer. For example, the same teacher could ask, “Tell me how a zebra is different from other animals” or “How would stripes help keep a zebra safe in its habitat?” Children would have the chance to share ideas about zebras, and, in group settings, hear peers share their ideas and receive feedback on the accuracy and clarity of their responses. 54 Summary There is evidence to suggest that a significant number of reading difficulties are preventable. For example, it is estimated that as many as 50% of children who are most at risk for reading failure can be brought to normal levels of performance following effective early reading instruction and interventions. The prevention of reading difficulties is motivated by the desire to prevent the negative outcomes associated with reading failure—such as grade retention, special education placement, high school dropout, unemployment, and so forth. Early and intensive interventions in reading are driven by the belief that the more prepared students are as they enter school and the more successful students are earlier in their educational careers, the greater the likelihood they will persist in school (Reschly, 2009). Their study introduced an idea that perhaps students affected by this gap could be negatively impacted in their academic performance, achievement, and in other ways. In order to function in society productively, a solid foundation in language attainment is crucial as it impacts literacy development, directly relates to academic achievement, and ultimately impacts your livelihood as an adult (Bruche et al., 2020). With this in mind, an inadequate school experience could lead to a lack of preparation to attain the desired American Dream of a good job, a nice home, a family, and a decent income. In addition, lack of preparation could result in a less desirable outcome of potentially dropping out of school, unemployment, incarceration, etc. The common thread that you will find in this research around impact is that students who are less prepared at the onset, will have less success during their academic career. This lack of academic success leads to a lack of preparation to be college and career ready. A lack of preparation to be college and career ready has several detrimental impacts on individuals and 55 society as a whole. This includes but is not limited to poor decision-making which starts with undesired results such as suspension from school, imprisonment, or worse. CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF INQUIRY As I discussed in Chapter 1, Black male students in Grade 1 enter LDES school with a considerably lower vocabulary than their White male counterparts. This discrepancy translates into diminished classroom performance and student achievement, and, ultimately, college acceptance, and limited success in the job market (although these long-term potential consequences are not the focus of my study). The goal of my study is to utilize a research based instructional method that will increase vocabulary in Black male students in Grade 1 in order to decrease and ultimately close the word gap. In this chapter, I will discuss the process that I will use to target a group of Black male Grade 1 students, obtain parental consent to conduct the research, and explain and review the process of how I will support their vocabulary development to the students involved. The major components of this chapter will include a detailed description of my inquiry method as it relates to my study to include my inquiry partners, inquiry procedures, description of participants, use of data, the intervention I will use, delimitations, limitations, and assumptions. Problem of Practice Guiding Questions My study is guided by the following questions: Research Question 1: How does targeting professional development aligned to students’ vocabulary development increase the quality of a teacher's practice in teaching vocabulary? This question is specifically aligned to pedagogy. Teacher preparedness and effectiveness requires an in dept understanding of the Multi-tiered System of Support (MTSS) process. MTSS is designed to help schools identify struggling students early and intervene quickly. It focuses on the “whole child”. That means it supports academic growth but many other areas too. These include behavior, social and emotional needs, and absenteeism (not attending school). The tiers 57 of support are a huge part of MTSS. They get more intense from one level to the next. For example, a child getting small group interventions may need to “move up” to one-on-one help. MTSS isn’t the same thing as response to intervention (RTI) as it is more comprehensive but it may include the three tiers of RTI. At the heart of the MTSS process is the Tier 1 component which is the universal, high quality classroom instruction that all students receive (Hall, 2018). MTSS is a framework with a tiered infrastructure that uses data to help match academic and social-emotional behavior assessment and instructional resources to each and every student's needs. One of my roles in Carolina County School System involves teacher support which includes designing and presenting professional development. Core learning is generally the focus when teacher professional development is designed, offered, and presented. This leaves a void in specific areas of need. My intervention intentionally addresses those voids. Research Question 2: How does targeting professional development for an identified first grade teacher provide her with the knowledge of instructional approaches and specific strategies to increase vocabulary in the Black male students in her classroom? This question focuses on the intended short-term outcomes of the study. By the end of the study, it is my hope that the Black male students in Grade 1 will increase in vocabulary as compared to their White counterparts. Both Research Question 1 and Research Question 2 are directly aligned to alleviating the word gap between Black and White students in Grade 1. My hope is that this study will have implications for all participants’ achievement subsequently, although all students are not the focus of my study, I believe that Black males will have greater benefit from the study. Research Question 1 highlights the effects of teacher professional development specifically geared towards 58 students’ vocabulary development. Research Question 2 highlights the impact of my professional development intervention on the vocabulary development of Black male students in Grade 1 particularly in comparison to their White counterparts.