BUILDING A ROBUST LOCAL WORKFORCE: CREATING REGISTERED YOUTH APPRENTICESHIPS WITH K-12 & LOCAL COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Kristie Jones Sauls May, 2025 Director of Dissertation: Heidi Puckett, EdD Major Department: Educational Leadership ABSTRACT The growing skills gap in the workforce highlights the need for innovative solutions that better prepare students for high-demand careers. Traditional educational pathways, particularly emphasizing four-year college degrees, often fail to equip students with the technical, academic, and employability skills necessary to transition successfully into the labor market. Registered youth apprenticeships offer an alternative by integrating classroom instruction with hands-on, industry-driven training, enabling students to earn while they learn. This qualitative study examined the experiences and perceptions of students, employers, and educators involved in registered youth apprenticeship programs. The research was conducted in four phases, beginning with interviews to understand current experiential learning opportunities available to Wayne County Public School (WCPS) students. Phase II interviewed current and former apprentices at Surry-Yadkin Works, an established youth program, to understand the long-term impact of apprenticeships on career development for high school students. Phase III focused on designing and implementing a registered youth apprenticeship program for Wayne Community College (WCC) that aligned with industry needs. The final phase involved conducting interviews and surveys with program participants to evaluate their experiences, assess the program’s effectiveness, and identify opportunities for improvement. Findings from this study provide insights into the effectiveness of youth apprenticeships in addressing workforce shortages, supporting student career development, and fostering economic growth. The research also recommends strengthening apprenticeship programs to enhance student retention, industry engagement, and long-term workforce preparedness. This study contributes to the growing knowledge of work-based learning and informs policymakers, educators, and business leaders on strategies to build a highly skilled workforce through youth apprenticeships. BUILDING A ROBUST LOCAL WORKFORCE: CREATING REGISTERED YOUTH APPRENTICESHIPS WITH K-12 & LOCAL COMMUNITY COLLEGES A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership By Kristie Jones Sauls May, 2025 Director of Dissertation: Heidi Puckett, EdD Dissertation Committee Members: Travis Lewis, EdD David Siegel, PhD Elizabeth Andrews-Standafer, EdD ©Copyright 2025 Kristie Jones Sauls DEDICATION To my parents you have always believed in me! Mama and Daddy, I finally found my words. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dream would not have been accomplished without my faith in God. 2 Corinthians 5:7 says, “For we walk by faith, not by sight.” God often provided a way along this journey when I saw no way. He knows my passion and makes education my mission field. First, thank you to my family. My husband Frank, you have shown me love unlike no other through this process. You made sure I had dinner every night I sat down at the computer to take class or write a few pages. You always seem to know the exact moment I needed some warm baked chocolate chip cookies to get through the slump. You sat and listened to me ramble about my findings, let me bounce ideas off you, and you encouraged me when I was so discouraged. Your love and support through this process exemplify unconditional love to every spouse out there. To my children, John Norton and Ryan Norton, thank you for inspiring me to get up and work hard to provide all students with the opportunity to learn something new. You boys are the wind beneath my wings; everything I do is because of you. Never give up on chasing your dreams, and let your mama be an example that you are never too old to do something. To my parents Major and Kitsie. THANK YOU for raising a headstrong daughter and being the best parents a girl could ask for. You instilled in me at a young age to chase my dreams and not give up. Once we start something, we finish it; daddy always taught us that education is the one thing that cannot be taken from us. Mama, who knew the impact you were having on my life in 1986 when I watched you walk across the stage at Campbell University to receive your Master of Education. Thank you for being my example to chase my dreams. To my siblings, thank you for your support. Sharon, thank you for being the best little sister and cheerleader on the slide lines. You have listened to my ramble so many times and never once complained. Thank you for believing in me when I doubted myself and reminding me, “You got this!” To my Wayne Community College family, Dr. Patty Pfeiffer, thank you for pushing me to take on this adventure. To the Applied Technology family…thank you for taking my idea and turning it into an amazing summer program for our students. Todd King, Steven Reese, Dr. Ernie White, Eddie Carter, Bobby McArthur, Paul Casey, Bailey Gilbert, and David Meek, you truly are the A-Team, and none of this would have been possible without your love for teaching students. Never stop doing what you are doing. Clarence Scott, I have no words for your partnership and friendship. Your vision and passion for students are like no other. Thank you for trusting me with your vision. Dr. Elizabeth Standafer, thank you for being the best mentor and friend I could ever ask for. Thank you for all the advice and ideas for doing a case study to advance the work of youth apprenticeship opportunities. You are not just a colleague but a friend with the same fire and passion for providing opportunities to high school students. Thank you for charting these waters ahead of me. To my committee, Dr. Heidi Puckett, Dr. Travis Lewis, Dr. David Siegel, and Dr. Elizabeth Standafer, thank you for believing in me and helping me through this process. Your commitment to creating great education leaders is top-notch. Last but not least, my cohort classmate and now lifelong friend Michelle Milliken. Thank you for all the text messages, calls, and encouragement. I cannot think of a better person to be on this journey with. Dr. Milliken, we made it because we finally “got the words on the paper and got it done!” Much love and thank you to everyone who took this journey with me. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE………………………………………………………………………………… i COPYRIGHT…………….…………………………………………………………… ii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….. iv LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………… xiv LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….. xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………. 1 Background of Problem of Practice..………………………………………….. 3 Context of Study……………...……………………………………………….. 4 Problem of Practice Statement..……………………………………………….. 6 Problem of Practice Guiding Questions.…….………………………………… 8 Overview of the Inquiry………………………………………………………... 9 Phase I………….………………………………………………………... 9 Phase II……….…………………………………………………...……... 9 Phase III……….…………………………………………….…………... 10 Phase IV……….…………………………………………….…………... 10 Inquiry Partners.……………………………………………………………….. 11 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework…………..……………...…………… 12 Definitions of Key Terms….....………………….…………………………….. 13 Assumptions……………...…...……………………………………………….. 15 Scope and Delimitations……...……………….……………………………….. 16 Limitations……………….…...……………….……………………………….. 17 Significance of the Study…….…...…………...……………………………….. 18 Advances in Equity and Social Justice..……………...………………………... 18 Advance in Practice…………………..………………………………………... 20 Summary………………………………….…………………………….……… 21 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE………………………………………… 23 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework…..……….…………………………... 24 Cognitive Apprenticeship Model…....…………………………………... 24 Human Capital Theory…………………………………………………... 29 Youth Development Theory……………………………………………... 30 Apprenticeships…………..….…………………….…………………………... 31 Apprenticeships in the United States…...……………………...………… 34 Core Components of Registered Apprenticeships in the United States…. 36 Apprenticeship Partners…...…………………………………………………... 37 Business and Industry Partners…………………………………………. 39 Educational Partners………………..…….……………………............... 41 Career and Technical Education .…………..….……...……………………….. 43 Youth Apprenticeships………………….....…………………………............... 45 Barriers in Youth Apprenticeships…….………………………………………. 48 Broadband Disparities…………………………………………………... 49 Lack of Transportation………………………………………………….. 50 Shortage of Employment Opportunities………………………………... 50 Summary………………………………………………………………………. 51 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY OF INQUIRY…………………………………… 53 Problem of Practice Guiding Questions…………………………………….…. 54 Inquiry Design and Rationale…………………………………………….…… 56 Case Selection…………………………………………………………………. 57 Context of Inquiry...……………………………………………………………. 59 Inquiry Partners…….…………………………………………………………... 60 Ethical Considerations and Informed Consent…………………………...……. 62 Inquiry Procedure……………………………………………………………… 64 Phase I……...………………………………...………………………….. 64 Description of Participants……………………………...………… 65 Instrumentation…………………………………………...………. 66 Baseline Data Collection……..…………………………………... 67 Baseline Data Analysis…………...………………………………. 68 Summary of Phase I……………..….…………………………….. 69 Phase II…..……………………………………………………………… 69 Description of Participants……...………………………………… 69 Educational Partner………………………………………… 70 Employer Partners………………………………………….. 70 Students……………………....…………………………….. 70 Instrumentation……………………………………...……………. 70 Educational Partner………………………………………… 71 Employer Partners………………………………………….. 71 Students……………....…………………………………….. 72 Data Collection……...……………………………………………. 73 Data Analysis...………...…………………………………………. 75 Summary of Phase II…………...…………………………………. 76 Phase III…………...…………………………………………………….. 76 Program of Design……...……………………………......……….. 76 Program Implementation...…..………..………………………….. 77 Education Partner…………………………………………... 77 Employer Partner…………………………………………... 77 Student Participants………………………………………... 78 Summary of Phase III…………..………………………………... 78 Phase IV………...……………………………………………………….. 78 Description of Participants………...……………………………… 79 Employer Partner…………………………………………... 79 Students……………………....…………………………….. 79 Instrumentation………………….............…………......…………. 79 Data Collection…….………………………………..……………. 80 Data Analysis...………...…………………………………………. 81 Summary of Phase IV………….….….…………………………... 82 Inquiry Design Rigor………………………………………………………….. 82 Assumptions…………………………………………………………………… 82 Scope and Delimitations………………..……………………………………… 83 Limitations………………………………………………………….………….. 84 Role of Scholarly Practitioner…………………………………………………. 85 Summary………………………………………………………………………. 86 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS………………………..…………………………………… 87 Implementations………………………………………………………………... 88 Phase I…………………………………………………………………... 89 Baseline Data Collection………………………………………….. 89 Phase II………………………………………………………………….. 90 Data Collection…………………………………………………… 91 Allie………………………………………………………… 91 Susan……………………………………………………... 92 Data Analysis……………………………………………………... 93 Phase III………………………………………………………………… 94 Partnerships and Collaborations…………………………………... 94 North Carolina Business Committee for Education……...… 95 Surry-Yadkin Works……………………………………...… 95 Creation of SEED Initiative……………………………………… 97 Initial SEED Plan…………………………………………... 98 Student Selection…………..……………………………………... 101 SEED Participants’ Demographics………………………… 101 Phase IV………………………………………………………………… 102 Employers’ Engagement in SEED Program……………………… 107 Students’ Experience in SEED Program………………………….. 109 Data Collection………………………………………………………………... 112 Baseline Data…………………………………………………………… 112 Data Collection from SEED Program…………………………………... 114 Surveys……………………………………………………………. 114 Semi-Structured Interviews……………………………………….. 114 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………….. 115 Survey Data Analysis…………………………………………………… 116 Semi-Structured Interview Data Analysis………………………………. 116 Albert…………………………………………………………….. 116 Lizzy……………………………………………………………… 120 Codes and Themes……………………………………………………… 121 Theme #1……………………………………………………….… 121 Theme #2……………………………………………………..…... 123 Theme #3…………………………………………………………. 123 Results…………………………………………………………………………. 124 Analysis of Guiding Question #1……………………………………….. 124 Analysis of Guiding Question #2……………………………………….. 125 Analysis of Guiding Question #3……………………………………….. 126 Analysis of Guiding Question #4……………………………………….. 126 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 127 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS......... 129 Summary of the Findings………………….….….…………………………….. 129 Phase I…………………………………………………………………... 130 Phase II...………………………………………………………………... 130 Phase III.………………………………………………………………... 130 Phase IV.………………………………………………………………... 131 Interpretation of the Findings………………………………………………….. 132 Guiding Question #1……………………………………………………. 132 Guiding Question #2……………………………………………………. 132 Guiding Question #3……………………………………………………. 133 Guiding Question #4……………………………………………………. 133 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework………………………………………. 134 Cognitive Apprenticeship Theory………………………………………. 135 Human Capital Theory………………………………………………….. 137 Adolescent Development Theory……………………………………….. 138 Scope and Delimitations………………………………………………………. 139 Limitations…………………………………………………………………….. 140 Implications of the Findings for Practice……………………………………… 142 Social Justice, Diversity, Access, and Equity Implications…………………… 144 Recommendations for Future Research….……...…………...………...…....…. 146 Reflections from Scholarly Practitioner and Recommendations for Practice…. 147 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………….. 149 REFERENCES………………………………………....…………………………….. 151 APPENDIX A: ECU INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL………… 165 APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT……………………………………………. 166 APPENDIX C: INFORMED STUDENT ASSENT FORM………………………… 168 APPENDIX D: INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FORM…………………….. 170 APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW FOR WCPS PERSONNEL………….…………….… 172 APPENDIX F: INTERVIEW FOR SURRY-YADKIN WORKS…………………… 174 APPENDIX G: INTERVIEW FOR EMPLOYER PARTNERS………...…………... 176 APPENDIX H: INTERVIEW WITH SEED STUDENT ………………………….... 178 APPENDIX I: SEED STUDENT’S SURVEY……………….…...…………………. 180 APPENDIX J: SEED INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FORM…….….….….. 182 APPENDIX K: SEED: GROWING TOMORROWS WORKFORCE TODAY PROGRAM OVERVIEW AND DETAILS………………………………………….. 184 LIST OF TABLES 1. Phases of Study…………………………...……………………………………....... 55 2. Age, Grade Level, Gender Identity, Race or Ethnicity…………………………….. 104 3. Phase of Study with Actual Research Timeline……………………………………. 113 4. Initial Word List and Supplemental Codes & Themes…………………………….. 122 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Cognitive apprenticeship model…….…………………………………………… 14 2. Theoretical and conceptual framework…………………………………………… 25 3. Core components of registered apprenticeships in the United States…………….. 38 4. Inquiry partners…………………………………………………………………... 61 5. Program development timeline…………………………………………………… 99 6. SEED participants breakdown by high school grade level……………………….. 103 7. SEED participants by ethnicity…………………………………………………… 106 8. SEED students engaging with industry professionals…………………………….. 108 9. SEED hands-on learning in manufacturing………………………………………. 110 10. SEED exploring advanced manufacturing processes……………………………... 111 11. Student recommendation of SEED program……………………………………… 117 12. SEED program influence career decisions………………………………………... 118 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Over the last 20 years, the government has worked to create initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), Race to the Top (2009), and Raising the Bar (2022), all with the intent to improve the competitiveness of American youth in the global economy. However, the skills gap in the United States has significantly increased, and the vast majority of new jobs require education beyond a high school diploma; therefore, high school students are not adequately equipped for college or the workforce when they graduate (Andrews-Standafer, 2018). Students must be prepared for a profession or college when they graduate from high school if American industry is to be competitive on a worldwide scale (Andrews-Standafer, 2018; Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Howze, 2015). Many high school students in America are preparing for jobs that no longer exist because they are told that a four-year college education is the only way to succeed. This is not only impacting the workforce but is also contributing to the national debt issue. For many students, going off to college is not a viable option because of the cost of a four-year college education. According to the Education Data Initiative, a first-time, full-time undergraduate pays an average of $36,436 to obtain a four-year degree (Hanson, 2023). Students who graduate from high school will continue to be ill-prepared for the job market if they are not given the academic, technical, and employability skills to ease the transition into jobs and college for students (Arthur-Mensah, 2015). Even though a four-year degree may seem unattainable to many, students still need to be highly trained and skilled before entering the workforce. Apprenticeships are industry-driven, high-quality career paths where students may acquire paid job experience, classroom education, and a transportable, nationally recognized degree. At the same time, companies can develop and prepare their future workforce 2 (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). Creating registered youth apprenticeships allows students to begin a career path that allows them to earn. At the same time, they learn by combining academic and technical instruction with on-the-job training (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). Apprenticeships offer a solution to bridging the education and workforce gap when matched with the beliefs and expectations of the primary stakeholders, including students, employers, and educators (Arthur- Mensah, 2015). Other countries, such as Canada, England, and Germany, see youth apprenticeships as a solution to the workforce problem by offering a smooth transition for youth from school to work and addressing labor shortages (Taylor & Freeman, 2011). Youth apprenticeships have, however, been stagnant in America because many still believe that a four-year degree is a prerequisite for landing a well-paying job (Hennen, 2022). However, over the last two decades, there has been a shift in how employers view youth apprenticeship opportunities, mainly due to the success of other countries (Arthur-Mensah, 2015). Americans are beginning to recognize the value of youth apprenticeships because they benefit the future workforce by providing on-the-job training and course-related instruction to a new generation of workers. Registered youth apprenticeship programs allow employers to rebuild the workforce while recruiting and retaining youth in high- demand occupations (Wienand, 2022). In November 2022, the U.S. Department of Education, in conjunction with the Departments of Commerce and Labor, launched the Raise the Bar: Unlocking Career Success initiative to bring awareness and expand access to high-quality training programs to assist youth in finding employment in today's in-demand professions and preparing for future careers (Kyaw, 2022). The skills required to enter the workforce and succeed can often be obtained through Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs offered during high school or at the local 3 community college. However, K-12 educational systems and local community colleges need to work together to educate and introduce students and their families to various career paths that allow students to earn post-secondary credentials with little to no cost to the student. This study aims to create a robust workforce for Wayne County and the surrounding area by recruiting and retaining youth as registered apprentices. Through collaboration with K–12 schools and local community colleges, young people can earn the credentials to succeed in the workforce upon high school graduation. Background of Problem of Practice Over the last decade, there has been a decline in the population in southeastern North Carolina (Nichole & Hunt, 2018). The Baby Boomer generation (1946 to 1964) is retiring at a high rate, while birth rates in the previous 20 years have been declining (Nichole & Hunt, 2018); therefore, businesses, industries, and governmental agencies in southeastern North Carolina are struggling to find qualified workers to meet the current workforce demands. According to economic data from 2018, approximately 37,000 workers out of a workforce of 50,000 are 55 years old or older (Nichole & Hunt, 2018). Seventy-four percent of the workforce is at or nearing retirement status. Many workers in southeastern North Carolina earn wages below the average cost of living, which is $44,000 for North Carolinians; therefore, 20% of the population in Wayne County and the surrounding area live in poverty (Nichole & Hunt, 2018). Research has shown that companies that invest in providing course-related instruction and on-the-job training for workers through registered apprenticeships have been beneficial to the employee and the employer (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). A study in 2020 by Apprenticeship NC found that for every $1.00 spent on training, the company earns $1.70 in return (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). Youth apprenticeships can successfully transition adolescents into 4 adulthood if given the correct resources and assistance (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Halpern, 2009; Hamilton & Hamilton, 1997). According to Apprenticeship USA, there is a 90% employment retention rate among apprentices who retain employment after a completed apprenticeship program (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). Creating registered youth apprenticeships allows companies to begin recruiting and retaining students under 18 while providing the apprentice an opportunity to earn industry-recognized credentials and a competitive wage in a career with income mobility. Context of Study Wayne Community College (WCC), located in Goldsboro, NC, is among the 58 North Carolina Community Colleges. It is a higher education institution with a history rooted in vocational and trade education; WCC offers certificates, diplomas, and degrees in applied technology, business technology, allied health, and public safety, preparing students for a promising career. Through the college transfer program, WCC also allows students to complete the first two years of a four-year degree. WCC's Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education designation is a Basic Classification denoting the highest degree awarded as an associate degree. Its disciplinary focus is vocational and technical education along with college transfer. The undergraduate profile is two-year part-time (Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, 2020). An Economic Impact report completed in 2018 revealed that Wayne County has a flat population, more than half of the county's workforce is at or nearing retirement age, and more than 20% lives in poverty (Nichole & Hunt, 2018). WCC has sought ways to assist in creating a workforce of highly trained, skilled workers that would keep the county thriving for years to come. In 2019, with a need for highly trained and skilled maintenance technicians, WCC worked 5 with local industry partners to create a cohort model allowing academic credit and on-the-job training (Pfeiffer et al., 2022). As a result of the interest generated in registered apprenticeships with business, industry, and governmental agencies in the county and southeast region, Apprenticeship Wayne was created in 2020 as part of the Wayne Business and Industry Center. It is an employer-based apprenticeship program offered through WCC, registered with ApprenticeshipNC and the United States Department of Labor (USDOL). The program helps workers learn specialized skills needed in today's work environment, combining on-the-job learning with related classroom instruction. Students earn nationally recognized credentials, while employers develop a talented team and close the skills gap. The goal of Apprenticeship Wayne at WCC is to help connect and support employers and apprentices. The partnership between business, industry, and governmental agencies has flourished in Wayne County and the surrounding area. WCC currently works with 10 different businesses, industries, and governmental agencies to offer course-related instruction to almost 150 apprentices in maintenance, swine management, machining, HVAC, electrical, healthcare, and automotive (Apprenticeship Wayne, n.d.). While apprenticeships benefit incumbent workers seeking a promotion and income mobility, it is also for the underemployed seeking a career change and high school students seeking to enter the workforce (Pfeiffer et al., 2022). Apprenticeships provide the opportunity to earn a desirable wage while earning industry-recognized credentials (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). There is a lack of knowledge when it comes to understanding the value of registered apprenticeships and the impact apprenticeships can have by offering jobs with income mobility. Educational and employer partners need to collaborate; however, Apprenticeship Wayne is challenged with recruiting and retaining youth as apprentices, as educational and employer 6 partners historically have not worked together to understand the workforce’s needs. Therefore, youth are not participating in CTE classes that could provide them with a sustainable career that provides income mobility. Problem of Practice Statement According to research high school students are not properly prepared with the necessary skills and credentials needed to enter the workforce in a career that can provide financial stability (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Hansen, 2021; Lerman, 2008; Lerman & Pouncy, 1990; Stone & Lewis, 2012; Wise & Siddiqi, 2022). Often, high school CTE programs do not offer programs and credentials that align with the needs of the labor market because partnerships between education systems and industries are needed to ensure that academic and career interests align with educational reform to meet the needs of the labor market (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Hansen, 2021; Lerman, 2008; Stone & Lewis; 2012; Symonds et al., 2011; Trilling & Fadel, 2009; Wise & Siddiqi, 2022). Therefore, while communication is essential, it is insufficient to address the job market, globalization, and technological advancements. Students must have the chance to seek alternative professional choices that would enable them to prosper when they enter the workforce (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Conley, 2010; Green, 2005; Hamilton, 1990; Lerman, 2008; Stone & Lewis, 2012). Through youth apprenticeships, companies can partner with local high school and community college systems to create career pathways that work to guarantee student success by providing credentials needed for a highly skilled workforce. While there are many barriers and challenges to creating a highly skilled and trained workforce, companies can mitigate these challenges by tapping into today's youth through registered apprenticeships (Boren et al., 2021). The purpose of this qualitative study was to create a registered youth apprenticeship program at 7 WCC to ensure that high school graduates are aware of and have access to credentials that prepare them for in-demand professions and future careers. The study required collaboration between WCC, K-12 institutions, and industry partners to implement a successful youth apprenticeship program. WCC currently maintains a successful adult apprenticeship program, but the study sought to utilize a model at another community college to create a similar program for youth at WCC. Youth apprenticeships work to connect students, educational systems (both high school and postsecondary schools), and local employers, allowing students to earn credentials and skills that lead to in-demand careers (Youth Apprenticeship | Jobs for the Future [JFF], n.d.). Registered apprentices enable businesses and industries to collaborate with local high schools and community colleges to create student career pathways. Career pathways allow students to earn credentials sought in the workforce and pursue careers that enable income mobility, which could help reduce the region's poverty levels (Beaudouin, 2021). Registered apprenticeships are a win-win-win for the education system, the student, and the employer. It helps to accomplish long-range goals of having highly skilled workers for the future (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). Registered youth apprenticeships are one means of addressing the employment needs of business, industry, and governmental agencies. K-12 educational institutions and local community colleges can work together to address the workforce shortage in high-demand occupations (e.g., healthcare, information technology, engineering, and manufacturing) by recognizing the benefits of youth apprenticeship programs and preparing students with job-ready credentials. Studying the experiences of students, employers, and educators engaged in apprenticeships might have revealed the impact of high school students earning career-ready 8 credentials when addressing local employers' needs using a qualitative research approach. Qualitative researchers investigated objects in their natural contexts while seeking to make sense of or interpret events in terms of the meanings individuals assigned to them (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This interpretative, naturalistic approach was critical to qualitative research (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This study aimed to create an understanding of youth apprenticeships and the economic impact apprenticeships had on recruiting and retaining students in high-demand jobs. It also explored the experiences and/or perceptions of students and employers participating in registered youth apprenticeships, as well as the opportunities and the value of collaboration among various partners (e.g., teachers, administrators, and employers) involved in providing students with the necessary credentials to be successful in the workplace. The study sought to create youth apprenticeship programs that delivered industry-recognized credentials needed to succeed in high-demand occupations and recruit and retain student apprentices. Problem of Practice Guiding Questions This study was guided by the following questions: 1. How are programs organized and implemented to prepare Wayne County Public Schools (WCPS) high school students to be college and/or career ready through work-based learning opportunities? 2. What program strategies can be implemented to increase access to youth apprenticeship programs at WCC for high school students? 3. What is the initial impact of the program designed to increase access to youth apprenticeship programs at WCC from an employer’s perspective? 9 4. What was the initial impact of the program designed to increase access to youth apprenticeship programs at WCC from the student’s perspective? Overview of the Inquiry To answer the Problem of Practice guiding questions, a qualitative study using an action research design was used to increase access to youth apprenticeships for high school students. Action research is a flexible method to conduct research that has the potential to advance change in educational practice through action, assessment, and reflection (Oosthuizen, 2002). Action research is an acceptable design for the Problem of Practice because it requires planning, action, analysis, and conclusion which can be replicated throughout registered apprenticeship programs. The study was created to take place over four phases. Phase I Phase I addressed the first research question with the intent to gather baseline data to understand and examine how work-based learning programs at the high school level are organized and implemented, and the relationship between WCPS and WCC when it came to preparing students for college and/or career readiness, and the needs of the education and businesses within the community. During Phase I, qualitative data was collected via semi- structured interviews with personnel from the public school system (e.g., Director of Secondary Education and Program Development and CTE Director) and WCC's Career and College Promise program staff members. Phase I was scheduled to begin in January 2024. Phase II Phase II began after the baseline data from Phase I had been collected and analyzed. During Phase II, a case study was conducted with Surry-Yadkin Works, a multi-county work- based learning program for rural western North Carolina high school students. This program 10 addressed the challenges of needing a highly trained, skilled workforce while also helping students gain the credentials necessary for success after high school graduation. Qualitative data was gathered through semi-structured interviews with school personnel, employer partners, apprentices currently participating in the program, and recent graduates. These interviews aimed to evaluate their perspectives on the apprenticeship program and how it prepared them for the workforce. In this Phase, the collected data was transcribed using transcription software, specifically 3play media, and then analyzed to highlight the main points and trends among the participants. After the data collection and analysis, all information was presented to the inquiry partners. Phase III Phase III utilized the information that had been gathered and analyzed in Phase II to design and implement a program aimed at developing youth apprenticeships in collaboration with K-12 institutions and community colleges. The program was created by the experiences of participants, focusing on how those experiences contributed to successes or failures within the program. Phase IV Phase IV evaluated the new program designed to recruit and retain youth in apprenticeship opportunities. It will take three to five years to determine the program's overall success; therefore, Phase IV focused on understanding the initial impact from both employers' and students' perspectives. The goal was to gain insights into the value that registered youth apprenticeships brought to the workforce in eastern North Carolina, with a particular emphasis on Wayne County. Once best practices were identified, a presentation was made to local K-12 11 and community college leaders to discuss how to advance the project. Phase IV was expected to take place between October 2024 and December 2024. Inquiry Partners All individuals or groups affected favorably or negatively by organizational change were considered stakeholders or inquiry partners. Stakeholders could be internal (individuals working for the company) or external (outside the organization). However, not all stakeholders were equally important; some were peripheral, while others had a more significant influence on or were more impacted by the research, but all stakeholders needed to be involved to execute organizational change (Hendricks, 2023). Inquiry partners in this study included WCPS personnel, employer partners, and faculty, staff, and administrators at WCC. Collaborating with the CTE personnel at WCPS was critical to understanding how it was determined which CTE programs were offered to high school students throughout the county. It also provided information on the various credentials’ students had the potential to earn while in high school that would have been valuable to the workforce. Employer partners were able to provide insight into the skills and credentials they needed students to have upon high school graduation to be considered highly skilled and immediately employable. Faculty at WCC who had worked to create a curriculum based on the needs of the local workforce were also vital in ensuring programs were created for high school students that met the requirements of the North Carolina Community College System and the local workforce. When implementing work-based learning programs that offered internships, pre- apprenticeships, and youth apprenticeships, it was vital to have support from key administrators in the K-12 area and community college. Therefore, administrators involved in the study included the WCPS Superintendent, WCPS CTE Advisory Board Members, WCC 12 Administrative Council, WCC Associate Dean of Workforce Development, WCC Wayne WORKS Board, and the Office of Institutional Effectiveness and Innovation (IEI) at WCC. Throughout all phases of the inquiry process, these partners functioned as mentors and sources of feedback. Furthermore, the inquiry partners were asked to address any potential researcher bias that emerged during data processing and analysis. The administrative inquiry partners were consulted and informed of all findings. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Two theories, youth development, describing the time when individuals are teenagers and starting to figure out who they are and where they fit in society, and the human capital theory, examining the investment in education and training, have been used to understand youth apprenticeships and the value they can add to the workforce, and will be discussed further in Chapter 2. The study is framed using Dewey’s philosophy of pragmatism. John Dewey pioneered functional psychology, pragmatism, and student-centered experiential learning. He believed the secret to happiness was discovering what one could do and having the chance to achieve it. Dewey’s theory posits learning happens when students can put their ideas into practice. Much of his work highlights the linkages between a thriving civil society, educational institutions, and increased and adjustable environmental sensitivity (McDonald, 2002; Weston, 1985). The cognitive apprenticeship model (CAM) complements Dewey’s philosophy because it emphasizes that learning can occur in the workplace. CAM, developed by Brown, Collins, and Holum, is an instructional strategy that strives to make thinking visible (Collins et al., 1991). The success of apprenticeships depends heavily on the incorporation and use of cognitive knowledge techniques. The integration and use of cognitive knowledge strategies are imperative to the 13 success of apprenticeships. CAM aims to make internal thinking processes visible so students can observe and learn from them (Kurt, 2021). CAM uses six teaching techniques: modeling, learners observing an expert; coaching, learners receiving expert guidance; scaffolding, learners performing with support; articulation, learners explaining their knowledge; reflection, learners analyzing their performance; and exploration, learner owning and extending their knowledge (see Figure 1). This study aims to add to the limited literature on recruiting and retaining youth through apprenticeships. More information about CAM will be discussed in Chapter 2. Definitions of Key Terms The following list of key terms provided clarity for the purpose of the study: Apprentice: Worker who is at least 16 years of age, except where a higher minimum age standard is otherwise fixed by law, who is employed to learn an occupation (USDOL, n.d.). Apprenticeship: Work-based learning programs registered with the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency combining course-related instruction, on-the-job training, with a progressive wage scale that leads to journeyman certification (Gordon, 2014). Career Ready: A framework for addressing job-related goals and the results of academic and extracurricular activities (What Is Career Readiness, n.d.). Career and Technical Education (CTE): Educational programming that provides students of all ages with the academic and technical skills, knowledge, and training necessary to succeed in future careers (Career Technical Education | Advance CTE, n.d.). Employability: Skills, personal qualities, and values needed to be successful in the workplace (e.g., communication skills or workplace skills; Arthur-Mensah, 2015). High Demand: An occupation with a projected growth rate above the percent average employment growth rate for all occupations. High demand occupations are defined by the 14 Figure 1. Cognitive apprenticeship model. • Learners observe expertModel • Learners receive expert guidance (mentor)Coach • Learners perform with supportScaffold • Learners explain their knowledgeArticulate • Learners analyze their performanceReflect • Learners own and extend knowledgeExplore 15 Federal government and have more than the average number of new openings (Andrews- Standafer, 2018). Skills Gap: Lack of expertise needed to meet current and future demands of the workforce (Westwood, 2004). Technical Skills: Unique to an occupation or cluster and demonstrate the students’ mastery of their programs (Hein et al., 2012; Stone & Lewis, 2012). Youth Apprenticeship: Apprenticeship programs that serve youth, ages 16–24 (Apprenticeship, n.d.). Work-based Learning (WBL): On-the-job training experience for a student to participate in the day-to-day operations at a specified job site under the supervision of a mentor (Career Technical Education, 2020). Assumptions In the present study, it was assumed that participants would be truthful and open when responding to interview questions. To encourage honest responses, participants were informed that all submitted information would remain private and that any data or findings would be presented using pseudonyms to protect their identities. It was also assumed that all participants would have had prior experience with youth apprenticeships, as this was part of the selection criteria. Following the study's completion, a new program was expected to be implemented at WCC based on the collected data. This program aimed to provide students with work-based learning opportunities leading to youth apprenticeships. Additionally, the goal of this new program was for students to earn industry-recognized credentials, which would help them secure sustainable careers and contribute to a stronger workforce for employer partners. 16 Moreover, certain assumptions about qualitative research relevant to the study were made. It was acknowledged that each participant's reality was subjective, leading to unique perceptions of reality (Hasse & Myers, 1988; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The subjective realities of participants were considered equally valid as other sources of factual data. In qualitative research, it was believed that a connection existed between the participant and the researcher, and that this relationship significantly impacted the entire research process (Hasse & Myers, 1988). Chapter 3 contains additional assumptions related to the study's action-research methodology. Scope and Delimitations Analyzing qualitative research was challenging due to the large amount of data it generated. This study focused on understanding the needs of WCC in creating a registered youth apprenticeship program. The goal was to ensure that high school graduates were informed about and had access to credentials that prepared them for in-demand professions and future careers. Apprenticeships became increasingly popular as they provided a pathway for income mobility and the opportunity to earn post-secondary credentials while receiving on-the-job training, all with little or no college debt. However, there was still limited research on the effectiveness of establishing youth apprenticeship pathways, and data collection in this area was almost nonexistent (Wienand, 2022). To address this gap, I surveyed educational and employer partners who actively participated in registered youth apprenticeship programs. This helped us understand the impact these apprenticeships had on strengthening the local workforce, promoting economic growth, and meeting the demand for highly skilled workers, especially in rural communities. 17 Collecting and analyzing data from these stakeholders was crucial because it informed employers, educational institutions, and government agencies about what was working and what needed improvement. The findings from this study could be used to enhance the quality of high school and industry partner apprenticeship programs and offer insights on recruiting and retaining youth in high-demand jobs. Delimitations referred to the boundaries set for this inquiry. The study took place from January 2024 to October 2024. Due to time constraints, I selectively chose participants to interview from Surry-Yadkin Works. One participant was the program director, who selected five additional participants: two employer partners and three apprentices. The employer partners had registered apprenticeship programs that provided opportunities for youth. The apprentices selected represented students participating in the Surry-Yadkin Works program and those considering entering the workforce immediately after high school graduation. This intentionality in participant selection aimed to keep the data manageable. After collecting and analyzing the data from Surry-Yadkin Works, I used the results to create a registered youth apprenticeship program tailored to the unique attributes of Wayne County and WCC. Limitations Limitations were flaws or weaknesses within the study that could have affected the results and influenced one’s ability to remain unbiased. These limitations arose from various factors, such as sample size, lack of resources, or personal biases. It was crucial to anticipate these limitations so that potential mitigation techniques could be implemented. In this study, I encountered several limitations, including a lack of participation from employers and 18 apprentices, reluctance from other institutions to share best practices, and insufficient transparency from those who had worked with apprentices. As a higher education professional, academic advisor, and parent of two college students, I witnessed young people's struggles when deciding what to pursue after high school graduation. My personal biases, both conscious and unconscious, might have affected how participants perceived the study and the responses they provided. To mitigate these biases, I developed a research plan that involved collecting data on apprenticeship programs in North Carolina that were similar to Apprenticeship Wayne. I summarized and presented the successes and challenges associated with working with youth, and I collaborated with my inquiry partners to ensure that the information and data were accurate. Significance of the Study Apprenticeships offer a valuable opportunity to earn post-secondary credentials while receiving a competitive wage. However, many employers, students, and parents do not fully understand the benefits and possibilities that apprenticeships provide. Through my research, I aimed to develop strategies for K-12 schools and local community colleges to collaborate in educating youth about the options available to them during and after high school through registered apprenticeship programs. This study also contributed to advancing equity and social justice in the development of registered apprenticeship opportunities for young people. Advances in Equity and Social Justice This study involved participants from diverse backgrounds, social classes, and ethnicities. Its primary goal was to promote equity and social justice while enhancing practices in higher education, particularly in collaboration with employer partners and K-12 educational institutions. The research focused on understanding youth apprenticeships and their economic effects on 19 recruiting and retaining students for high-demand jobs. Additionally, it explored the experiences and perceptions of both students and employers who participated in registered youth apprenticeships. The study sought to identify the value of collaborating with various stakeholders— including teachers, administrators, and employers—who were involved in apprenticeship programs. This collaboration was essential for providing students with the necessary credentials to succeed in the workplace. The research intended to establish a registered youth apprenticeship program at WCC, ensuring that high school graduates were informed about and could access credentials that prepared them for in-demand professions and future careers. Moreover, the study aimed to offer strategies to K-12 educational institutions and local community colleges for effectively recruiting and retaining students in youth apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeships were increasingly recognized as a means to strengthen the workforce development pipeline, which often failed to connect employed individuals with the training and education necessary for career advancement. This issue was particularly pressing for young people, especially those of color, who, despite a decade of economic recovery, still faced significantly high unemployment rates. Nationally, young adults (ages 16 to 24) had an unemployment rate of 8.6%, which was more than double the 3.8% rate for all workers in the country. Furthermore, young adults of color encountered specific challenges when entering the workforce, with an unemployment rate of 10.9% compared to 6.9% for their similarly aged white peers (Freyer et al., 2019). Registered youth apprenticeships offered high school students the chance to gain specialized qualifications and skills sought by employers without accumulating college debt (The Youth Apprenticeship Intermediary Project, n.d.). For students aspiring to pursue a college 20 education but unable to afford higher tuition and related expenses, these apprenticeships provided an opportunity to learn while earning competitive wages in high-demand occupations (The Youth Apprenticeship Intermediary Project, n.d.). Registered youth apprenticeships enabled low-income students to enhance their social and economic mobility, as well as that of their families and communities (USDOL, n.d.a.). Advances in Practice Expanding youth apprenticeships was an effective strategy for creating a more inclusive economy by aligning students' educational needs with industry talent requirements. The findings of this study demonstrated the value of collaboration between local community colleges and K– 12 schools in better preparing students for high-demand jobs. This research was shared with employer partners who sought to work with educators to provide challenging work-based learning opportunities for young people. Representatives from K–12 educational institutions used this study to advocate for apprenticeship programs as a viable career pathway for students who were not pursuing post-secondary education. Higher education institutions highlighted the benefits of youth apprenticeships to meet workforce demands or used the findings as a model to develop their own youth apprenticeship programs, particularly in rural areas like Wayne County. By providing practitioners with a comprehensive understanding of youth apprenticeship programs through this qualitative study, educational systems and business partners observed the positive outcomes of engaging students in these programs. This study demonstrated the impact of youth apprenticeships in offering pathways to success without the burden of college debt. Ultimately, the research contributed to the growing body of literature focused on ensuring that the future workforce was adequately prepared to transition into adulthood, whether by entering 21 the labor market immediately after high school or by pursuing higher education that led to employment opportunities. Summary According to the North Carolina Schools Report Card (2023), 47% of high school graduating seniors in Wayne County, NC, did not pursue post-secondary education within the first 12 months after graduation. By partnering with the WCPS Career and Technical Education Program and local employers, WCC aimed to create career pathways and registered youth apprenticeships that not only provided students with the opportunity to earn post-secondary credentials but also allowed them to earn wages that could lead to income mobility. This initiative offered a viable solution to address many of the workforce shortages facing the county and the region. Chapter 1 of this study outlined crucial information needed to understand the background of the problem, the context of the investigation, the statement of the problem, and the guiding questions. It also provided an overview of the inquiry procedures, inquiry partners, theoretical framework, definitions of key terms, assumptions, scope and delimitations, limitations, and significance of the inquiry. Chapter 2 expands on the conceptual framework and theoretical foundation used in this inquiry, Dewey's philosophy of pragmatism, using the cognitive apprenticeship model while providing an overview of the human capital and youth development theories related to apprenticeships. It also includes a literature review relevant to the overview of apprenticeships, the history of apprenticeships in the United States, the role of employer partners and educational partners, and the barriers youth apprentices face. Chapter 3 will discuss the methods used to 22 gather information. Included are the justifications and factors considered while choosing the inquiry methods. CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Apprenticeship programs help accomplish long-range goals of having highly skilled workers for the future. Apprenticeship programs are not about filling a worker shortage of today; instead, they are a means to increase the number of highly skilled employees of tomorrow. Employment rates for youth ages 16-24 are in a steep decline and the workforce is also facing a shortage of highly trained skilled workers. According to Urban Institute (2019), when compared to their peers, young people who are not in school or the workforce, referred to as disconnected youth or opportunity youth, are more likely to experience adverse outcomes like lower future earnings, lower educational attainment, worse health, and higher rates of involvement in the criminal justice system (Lewis & Gluskin, 2018; Spievack & Sick, 2019). However, youth employment through registered apprenticeship programs provides the opportunity to develop critical skills in a career field that allows for income mobility while offering a solution for the workforce crisis. It is essential to recognize the role of high schools and local community colleges in helping provide a highly trained, skilled workforce. Due to the aging workforce and a lack of highly skilled workers in various high-demand jobs, pathways for youth to earn post-secondary credentials in high school and post-secondary schooling have the potential to fill the gap in the local workforce (Pfeiffer et al., 2022). Apprenticeship programs allow businesses, industries, and governmental agencies to grow their own workforce by capturing the knowledge of those soon exiting the workforce while also providing the opportunity for advanced training of new workers. The purpose of this qualitative study is to create a registered youth apprenticeship program at WCC to ensure that high school graduates are aware of and have access to credentials that prepare them for in-demand professions and future careers. The study would require 24 collaboration between WCC, K-12 institutions, and industry partners to implement a successful youth apprenticeship program. WCC currently maintains a successful adult apprenticeship program, but the study seeks to utilize a model at another community college to create a similar program for youth at WCC. While there are many barriers and challenges (e.g., technology, transportation, lack of counselors) to creating a highly skilled and trained workforce, companies can mitigate these challenges by tapping into today's youth through registered apprenticeship programs (Boren et al., 2021). In order to understand the nuances of creating and implementing this type of program, it is important to review relevant literature that may provide insights that can help guide the study. This literature review will explore the conceptual and theoretical framework, the history of apprenticeships, apprenticeship partners, and youth apprentices in rural communities. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study uses the cognitive apprenticeship model, based on the theoretical framework of John Dewey’s philosophy of pragmatism. However, to understand the value of apprenticeships, especially when working with employer partners and high school students, it is vital to also take into account the impact of both human capital theory and adolescent development theory. Figure 2 provides a visual image of the relationship between the theoretical and conceptual framework and apprenticeships. Cognitive Apprenticeship Model Apprenticeship involves learning a physical, tangible activity. However, in schooling, students often cannot see the real-world applications when it comes to problem-solving, reading comprehension, and writing. In schooling, the thinking processes are often invisible to students 25 Figure 2. Theoretical and conceptual framework. 26 and teachers (Brown et al., 1991); whereas, in apprenticeship, the processes of the activity are visible. Cognitive apprenticeship is a model of instruction that works to make thinking visible. It is an instructional model incorporating formal schooling elements into a traditional apprenticeship (Aldino, 2022). A traditional apprenticeship refers to an individual who acquires proficiency in a particular profession or trade via the guidance of a mentor with a higher level of knowledge and expertise. The traditional apprenticeship model is not always suitable for teaching advanced problem-solving skills (Collins et al., 1991; Greer et al., 2016). The Cognitive Apprenticeship Model (CAM) was introduced to educate students in the classroom, drawing parallels with the traditional model of craft apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1989). CAM focuses on two main areas: teaching complicated problems in a way that works, and the mental processes that make up the learning process; however, CAM differs from the traditional apprenticeship because it focuses on developing mental models or metacognitive skills rather than physical skills (Collins et al., 1989; Garcia-Cabrero et al., 2018). It is important to note that cognitive apprenticeship does not always clarify what skills students should learn because the focus is on learning how to think more deeply (Butler et al., 2019; Kopcha & Alger, 2014). Cognitive apprenticeship enhances traditional apprenticeship by clarifying experts' unspoken processes (Stalmeijer, 2015). Apprenticeships are no longer about learning how to do a task repetitively. Business, industry, and governmental agencies have a demand for highly skilled workers who can think critically and solve problems. The integration and use of cognitive knowledge strategies are imperative to the success of apprenticeships and can be broken down into six teaching methods: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration (Collins et al., 1991). 27 By creating a cognitive apprenticeship environment, instructors’ pair theoretical practices in the classroom with on-the-job training (Kurt, 2021). John Dewey, American philosopher, psychologist, educator, and public intellectual, believed students developed critical thinking skills through hands-on learning experiences. Dewey's idea of combining theoretical and practical knowledge gives on-the-job training an academic and philosophical framework for how it can improve the whole learning experience of the student (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Kelleher & Leonall, 2011; Kurt, 2021; Thogersen & Jorgensen, 2010). Dewey pioneered functional psychology, pragmatism, and student-centered experiential learning. Much of Dewey's work highlights the linkages between a thriving civil society, educational institutions, and increased and adjustable environmental sensitivity (Arthur- Mensah, 2015; McDonald, 2002; Weston, 1985). Although pragmatism and instrumentalism are connected, Dewey referred to his theory as instrumentalism. According to instrumentalism, a concept's worth is derived from its use as a tool to achieve goals (Dewey, 1938). He thought traditional school systems tended toward passivity and rigidity because they did not include enough hands-on learning, which he thought was essential for helping students remember what they learned (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Dewey, 1938). Apprenticeships bring life to Dewey's theory through the CAM because student-centered experiential learning is crucial to the success of recruiting and retaining students (Kurt, 2021). This study would focus on increasing access to youth apprenticeships to experiential learning with critical thinking skills as described in the CAM. The CAM pairs with what the research hopes to accomplish by providing a replicable system where students are provided the tools they need to participate fully and actively in creating the society of the future. Dewey's theory supports the idea that students who participate in experiential learning, such as apprenticeships, 28 have the chance to develop their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities because they study in authentic work settings and deal with practical workplace issues. Dewey became recognized for progressive education, which regarded school as a potential for students to grow as people and citizens and provide them the opportunity to discover their true calling. Dewey (1938) believed the secret to happiness was discovering what one could do and having the chance to achieve it. He maintained that education should be based on life's realities rather than filling students with knowledge unconnected from actual experiences. In addition, he thought that education could assist students in developing self- awareness and problem-solving skills while also imparting information and skills. Therefore, the teacher's job was to provide the students with intelligent, worthwhile experiences. Dewey believed academic material should connect to activities in the real world and provide students the opportunity to find meaning in their learning by having practical, hands-on experience. Dewey was not an advocate of vocational education. He believed it wrong to separate students and provide some with academic training while providing others only with industry training. He believed that providing vocational training and preparing students for the workforce was nothing more than a way to supply companies with skilled labor at the cost of the general public (Dewey, 1938). According to Dewey (1938), learning happens when students can put their ideas into practice. He added that learning and experience are intertwined in cultural and social settings and that students might reflect on their experiences while learning from others through interesting, high-quality encounters (e.g., hands on experiences). The value of learning via experience, as advocated by Dewey, serves to advance all learning (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Kelleher & Leonall, 2011). In terms of learning and experience, cognitive learning could not be distinguished from 29 active learning. Studies suggest hands-on activities (e.g., building models, completing experiments, journaling) help students grasp concepts better than abstract instructions (Arthur- Mensah, 2015). Human Capital Theory Apprenticeships can be framed through the human capital theory (HCT). Human capital quantifies an individual's skills, education, ability, and labor traits within the workforce. These factors collectively impact the productive capacity and earning potential of individuals (Gerard, 2021; Pettinger, 2017). The fundamental tenet of HCT is that investing in education and training benefits the person, the organization, and the community (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Becker, 1975; Gerard, 2021; Schultz, 1961). Mincer (1989) explained that “human capacity is largely acquired and developed through formal and informal education at home, school, training, experiences and mobility in the labor market” (p. 27). If a company wants to safeguard its future, it must be willing and able to spend on developing its human resources. Therefore, apprenticeship through a HCT lens can be seen as a skills investment that necessitates giving up some money now in exchange for excellent skills, more productivity, and a better community in the future (Arthur- Mensah, 2015; Gerard, 2021; Lewis, 2014). For many years, there has been some debate about who should bear the cost of education and training. Employers often hesitate to invest in apprenticeship training, fearing the employee will leave the organization. However, for some searching for employment, the lack of education and training may hinder them from gaining employment (Gerard, 2021; Hanushek et al., 2011; Oswald-Egg & Renold, 2021). This issue is particularly prevalent among job seekers who earn a lower income, as they may find themselves in a difficult situation where they cannot afford to pay for their educational and training needs. For individuals who have family demands, the 30 financial feasibility of pursuing further education is not practical. Unlike physical capital, investments in human capital do not confer ownership rights on the company over the talents they fund and develop (Gerard, 2021; Hanushek et al., 2011). From an economic standpoint, it is crucial to invest in the education and training of human capital in order to adapt to the rapidly evolving work environment. The ability of the workforce to enhance their knowledge and effectively utilize modern technology is considered a catalyst for economic growth, both on a national and regional scale (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Blair, 2011). So, the fact that resources are put toward people instead of other types of tangible spending shows how important it is to acquire skills and knowledge in today's knowledge-based economy (Arthur-Mensah, 2015). Apprenticeships based on HCT explain why employers provide educational opportunities and resources for students to gain practical work experience. The purpose is to provide individuals with the technical skills and professional traits necessary to succeed in their career path. Students engaging in work-based initiatives, such as youth apprenticeships, gain a competitive edge and necessary qualifications in the workforce, improving their chances of not just a job but a career (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). Youth Development Theory The human capital theory supports the economic and professional benefits of work-based learning (WBL), whereas the youth development theory provides a framework for WBL. Significant transitions characterize the decade between the ages of 14 and 24 as youth begin to enter maturity and decide whether to continue their education or enter the workforce. The opportunities and support available to youth during this period can significantly impact their long-term paths to maturity (Li & Jackson-Spieker, 2022). Youth development theory offers a foundation for WBL because participation in initiatives like apprenticeships allows youth to form 31 their identities and gives them a sense of purpose as they grow emotionally, professionally, and toward adulthood (Halpern, 2009; Hamilton, 1990). According to Erickson (1950, 1968), establishing one's identity is the primary work of the adolescent stage, during which people go through many stages and are impacted by sociocultural forces. As a result, the adolescent stage has been defined as when people start to consider their traits and how they fit into society (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Career identity starts in early adolescence, usually around puberty, and finishes in late adolescence, when people become adults (Arnett, 2000; Arthur-Mensah, 2015). Recognizing the role of the youth development theory in apprenticeships is essential because it can help students build a strong sense of who they are and make learning new cognitive skills easier, improving their effectiveness and success in professional settings. Halpern (2009) believes apprenticeships are a great way to help youth develop their identity because they provide an opportunity for "experimentation and commitment," which means youth can try out new roles, interact with their environment, and learn more about their strengths, weaknesses, and interests (p. 40). In light of this, some researchers believe that exposing teens to the professional world improves their social and mental development, especially when learning skills such as critical thinking, time management, and conflict resolution (Aruthur-Mensah, 2015; Steinberg et al., 1982; Stone & Mortimer, 1998; Zimmer-Gembeck & Mortimer, 2006). Apprenticeships ApprenticeshipUSA (n.d.) defines apprenticeship as an industry-driven, high-quality career pathway where employers can develop and prepare their future workforce and individuals can obtain paid work experience, classroom instruction, and a portable, nationally-recognized credential. Registered apprenticeships are industry-driven because employers can recruit, train, 32 and retain highly skilled workers. Apprenticeship programs offer a solution to the workforce crisis by to preparing workers for jobs and meeting the needs of a highly skilled workforce necessary for the 21st century (Wienand, 2022). Businesses, employees, and the workforce all benefit from apprenticeships. Businesses can reduce worker turnover by creating employee loyalty, increasing productivity, and improving the company's bottom line (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Seth, 2023). Employees can provide income mobility by entering a new career with a progressive wage scale (Seth, 2023). The workforce can provide advanced training by partnering with the local community college and other educational training opportunities to develop highly skilled workers (Freeman & Toglia, 2023). After an apprentice has satisfied all the requirements of a registered apprenticeship, they would receive their Journeyman certification from the United Sates Department of Labor (USDOL). The Journeyman certification is also recognized by the Workforce Innovation Opportunity Act (WIOA) as a post-secondary credential (Pfeiffer et al., 2022). However, when it comes to apprenticeships in the United States compared to other European countries (e.g., England, Switzerland, Germany, France, and Scotland), there is a significant difference in the lack of apprenticeships and vocational training compared to other countries (Steinberg & Gurwitz, 2014). The United States has roughly 500,000 registered apprenticeships, and most occupations are in the building trades and heavy industry; whereas Great Britain, Switzerland, and Germany have 10 times more apprentice-able occupations (Magg, 2022). According to the Pathways to Prosperity: Meeting the Challenge of Preparing Young Americans for the 21st Century, “Germany has the best oldest and best-known apprenticeship system, which offers programs leading to recognized credentials in about 350 33 different occupations” (Symonds et al., 2011, p. 15). Many European countries are highly regarded when it comes to apprenticeship and vocational training; therefore, much can be learned from the European model when it comes to the value of apprenticeships and vocational training in solving the workforce issues in the United States. Research has shown that nations in European countries place far more emphasis on vocational education than the United States (Symonds et al., 2011). Vocational education starts as early as middle school in many countries. According to Harvard's Pathways to Prosperity Project, "In Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland, after grade 9 or 10, between 40 to 70% of young people opt for an educational program that typically combines classroom and workplace learning over the next three years" (Symonds et al., 2011, p. 15). Not only does vocational education provide students in European countries the opportunity to work as they learn, but it also provides students with a pathway to further their education if they so desire. The United States must catch up when introducing students to careers through vocational education (Symonds et al., 2011). European countries have created an apprenticeship or dual system model known as the secondary vocational education (VET) model for youth that focuses on the three "R's" – rigor, relevance, and relationships (Arthur-Mensah, 2015; Symonds et al., 2011). The VET program combines on-the-job training three to four days a week with one to two days of academic training. Once the VET program is completed, students in European countries have earned credentials equivalent to Americans with a technical degree from a community college (Symonds et al., 2011). 34 Apprenticeships in the United States Apprenticeships in the United States date back to colonial times when the founding fathers studied to be surveyors, printers, silversmiths, carpenters, and masons (Ladika, 2016; U.S. Department of Labor [USDOL], n.d.b). It was not until after the turn of the 20th century that apprenticeships began to take shape in America. In 1911, Wisconsin was the first state to create an apprenticeship program in response to the School to Work Movement. By the 1920s, industry leaders, government officials, and educators had identified a standardized national apprenticeship system. The Federal Committee on Apprenticeship was formed in 1934 to create policy recommendations, and in 1937 Congress enacted the Fitzgerald Act, known as the National Apprenticeship Act (NAA), creating the Office of Apprenticeship within USDOL (Ladika, 2016; Parton, 2017; USDOL, n.d.a; Wienand, 2022). The NAA has over 6,500 registered apprenticeship programs serving over 5 million Americans in manufacturing, construction, and utilities (USDOL, n.d.b; Wienand, 2022). Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, and Reagan created legislation to strengthen apprenticeships in the United States (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). However, it was President Clinton's administration that considered creating an initiative to establish a registered youth apprenticeship model that replicated Germany's program (Wienand, 2022). In August of 1993, Congress presented a bill to put added responsibility on the states to create more funding initiatives focused on youth employment and school-to-work transitions (Scribner & Wakelin, 1998; Wienand, 2022; Zemsky, 1994). The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 strengthened the job training system. It permitted job seekers to access employment services, training, and education programs in a one-stop delivery system (Ladika, 2016; Wienand, 2022). 35 Government officials have sought ways to connect education and workforce development to create a more robust, highly skilled pipeline of workers. The answer that stands out the most is apprenticeships, but it is an underutilized option (Parton, 2019; Wienand, 2022). An apprenticeship is a proven educational model that combines on-the-job training with course- related instruction (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). It allows students to connect theory to real-world experiences. From the beginning of an apprenticeship program, an apprentice is a paid employee, gaining valuable knowledge and work experience from a network of professional mentors and developing valuable skills needed on the job. Even though "Department of Labor recommends that apprenticeships for high school students align with secondary and post-secondary education…The programs should incorporate post-secondary credentials that expand options for students and help them develop industry-specific competencies while enrolled in high school" (Baddour & Hauge, 2020, p. 4). To succeed in the labor market, young people must complete some form of post-secondary training after high school; therefore, it is crucial for students to have an opportunity to earn post-secondary credentials while in high school. Post-secondary industry-recognized credentials can take a student from a mediocre dead-end job to a job that offers a sustainable career with income mobility. In the past, critics saw apprenticeships as a way to prepare the non-college-bound student; however, in the last 20 years the government has seen youth apprenticeships as a way to combat the United States economy's problem and address the skill gap (Advanced CTE, 2020; Lerman & Tyszko, 2016; Wienand, 2022). The Obama administration worked to change the view of apprenticeships in the 2014 State of the Union Address (Wienand, 2022). President Obama discussed the expansion of apprenticeship programs and increased money to support them. In 2015, Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which created a focus on 36 thoroughly preparing all students for success in college and careers by not only focusing on college degrees but also on certificate programs in post-secondary career and technical education institutions that lead to industry-recognized credentials (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). In 2017, President Trump issued an executive order, Expanding Apprenticeships in America, and pledged to increase funding for apprenticeships by over $4.5 million over the next five years (Fain, 2017). In February 2022 the Biden-Harris administration pledged $113 million in grant funds in efforts to strengthen registered apprenticeship programs. Marty Walsh, U.S. Secretary of Labor said, “For a young person starting their career or someone seeking a career change, Registered Apprenticeships provide equitable pathways to the middle class. This earn-as-you learn model is helping to grow our economy…” (U.S. Department of Labor, 2022, para. 3). Core Components of Registered Apprenticeships in the United States In the United States apprenticeships are regulated by the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 29.5, and are recognized as “industry-driven, high-quality career pathways” that allow employers to develop and prepare their future workforce (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). There are two types of entities that are responsible for registering and overseeing apprenticeship programs, the U.S. Department of Labor’s Office of Apprenticeship and recognized State Apprenticeship Agencies (SAA). The Office of Apprenticeship and SAAs offer program sponsors technical support and assistance, respond to inquiries regarding the apprenticeship model, direct partners through each step of the program development, link businesses with training providers, and advise partners on the funding options available to support apprenticeships (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). To be recognized by the USDOL or SAA as a registered apprenticeship, the program must meet the minimum requirement of 2,000 hours of on-the-job training and 144 hours of 37 course-related instruction over one year. On average, apprenticeship programs can be anywhere from one year to four years in length. No matter the length of the program, there are five requirements that apprenticeship programs registered with the USDOL or SAA must adhere to: (a) business involvement, (b) structured on-the-job-training, (c) related instruction, (d) progressive wage scale, and (e) national industry recognized credentials. When it comes to meeting the requirements of a registered apprenticeship program, sponsors have the flexibility to customize the program to meet the needs of the sponsor and occupation (ApprenticeshipUSA, n.d.). Figure 3 shows the components required for a registered apprenticeship with USDOL and ApprenticeshipNC. Apprenticeship Partners An apprenticeship is an industry-driven education and career training program built on accepted industry standards Partnerships that involve both education and non-education sectors have proven to effectively improve education and career opportunities for underrepresented or minority students. There has been a growing interest in implementing cross-sector collaborations in education in recent years. Apprenticeships allow educational and industry partners to collaborate and develop a structure integrating work and learning (Henig et al., 2015; Henig et al., 2016; Symonds et al., 2011; Wohlstetter et al., 2003). Collaboration between industry and educational partners enables businesses to address present and future employment demands. Apprenticeship programs are customizable and can be revised as needed; therefore, each partner contributes to the success of the apprenticeship program through their participation, support, and ongoing feedback. The following section provides an overview of employers and educational partners. 38 Figure 3. Core components of registered apprenticeships in the United States. 39 Business and Industry Partners With the current workforce aging faster than any other workforce in American history, the business and industry sectors struggle to find a highly skilled and trained workforce to meet future demands (James & Wooten, 2022). Over 10,000 baby boomers are retiring daily, leaving employers scrambling to fill positions (Kemp, 2022). Business, educational, and community partners must work together to create educational awareness and opportunities for youth. Local high schools and community colleges need to rethink their academic structure and create something that can allow high school students to attain post-secondary credentials that prepare students to be productive and prosper as adults (Spievack & Sick, 2019). Business and industry partners are key players when creating youth apprenticeship opportunities because an apprenticeship is always industry led and driven (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). Employers help determine occupational qualifications, provide a wage scale, collaborate with educational partners to determine the academic requirements for the apprentice, and assess one's performance to determine if all obligations have been met to award credentials (ApprenticeshipNC, n.d.). In European models, not only do employers pay the apprentice, they also pay more than half of the expenses associated with educational training. According to Symonds (2011) employers in Germany think that the best way to obtain a workforce with a high level of qualifications is to invest in the training and development of young people, take an active role in their socialization and training, and then hire those who have already demonstrated their productivity after completing their apprenticeship. While many countries have been looking to develop innovative solutions to build a highly skilled and trained workforce over the last 15 years, the United States has remained stagnant (Atkins et al., 2023; Symonds et al., 2011). One of the biggest reasons the United States 40 has fallen behind the curve is that other countries have sought ways to "offer more diverse, robust pathways to careers and practical-minded post-secondary options than we do in the U.S" (Symonds et al., 2011, p. 18). To develop a strong workforce for the future, it is crucial for employers and educational institutions to acknowledge the needs of the workforce. High school students should be encouraged to obtain industry-recognized credentials, which can lead to profitable employment opportunities, and help to address the workforce shortage (Giani, 2022). In the United States, leaders must look at countries with well-developed vocational education systems and find ways to incorporate them into the educational system (Hansen, 2021). Business partners can play a vital role in transitioning youth into adulthood. Registered apprenticeship is a proven model of job preparation by combining paid on-the-job training and course-related instruction that progressively increases workers' skill levels and creates income mobility. According to the Urban Institute (2022), "an apprentice on average earns $70,000 a year in a clearly defined career pathway… [and expects] to earn $300,000 more over your career" (para. 1). Work experiences as a youth can benefit both the employer and the employee. Youth who work while still in school can try on or test out a career while also learning job skills needed for the 21st century. Many advanced countries such as Germany, England, and Switzerland have discovered that allowing students to participate in work-based learning, job shadowing, or internships can be "extraordinarily powerful in engaging students who are bored or turned off by conventional classroom instruction" (Symonds et al., 2011, p. 24). However, American youth are often deprived of meaningful work experiences, reducing their future employment prospects. 41 Educational Partners According to Hansen (2021), education has failed students in the United States when it comes to helping high school students determine career paths. The education system in the United States needs to be updated and held responsible for ensuring children are adequately prepared with the skills and abilities to prepare for a career (Hansen, 2021). Career pathways help students see the value in training and education to be successful in a career field; but, for career pathways to become as successful as some of the European models, the United States must work to create a system that focuses on careers beginning as early as kindergarten of a student's education, spanning into high school, and even into at least one year of post-secondary education. “The American system for preparing young people to lead productive and prosperous lives as adults is clearly broken. Failure to aggressively overcome this change will erode the fabric of our society” (Symonds et al., 2011, p. 23 & 38). Public education systems need to stress the importance of obtaining some form of post-secondary that leads to industry-recognized credentials after graduation. Post-secondary education has become the leading path for high school graduates. However, with a saturated job market of college graduates with four-year degrees, youth need industry recognized credentials and cross-cutting skills to thrive in a rapidly changing economy (Webb, 2022). Career pathways provide a strategy that connects education with careers and meets the needs of employers, educators, and youth to create a more thriving and equitable economy. According to Harvard’s Pathways to Prosperity Project (2011), three significant barriers prevent career pathways from being successful in the United States: lack of career counseling, inconsistent CTE programs, and cultural influence. 42 Pre-pandemic counselors in high schools were bombarded with students’ personal, psychological, and social problems, and these problems have only increased since the pandemic. Abramson (2022) states, The pandemic has also exacerbated disparities in mental health services. A 2020 technical report from the University of Massachusetts Boston and University of Massachusetts Amherst found that students who needed access to school-based services the most, particularly those with lower socioeconomic backgrounds, had lower rates of counselors and school psychologists in their districts. (p. 69) In an education system that is already facing shortages in teachers and staff, having high-quality career development counselors is nearly impossible to attain (Abramson, 2022). Middle schools and high schools in the United States average 500 students for every counselor; therefore, many students need more guidance regarding careers and occupations before graduating high school (Perez, 2021). In the United States, 25% of students attend high school in rural areas (Blad, 2019). Research shows that students from rural areas have a lower college enrollment and graduation rate, indicating that many high school graduates are unprepared for higher education (Blad, 2019; Quintero & Gu, 2019). A challenge faced by rural students is the lack of opportunities to participate in career explorations (e.g., field trips to various work settings) that introduce them to various local careers. Not only do career counselors play a role in career explorations, but they also have an impact on shaping students' post-graduation outcomes. According to Quintero and Gu (2019), studies have shown the importance of counselors in providing information to students about their career options post-high school graduation. Therefore, increasing the number of 43 career counselors in rural areas could play a vital role in preparing students to transition from school to college or the workforce (Quintero & Gu, 2019; Roberts & Grant, 2021) Career and Technical Education Career and Technical Education (CTE), as it is known today, has been around since the founding of the United States (History of CTE - ACTE, n.d.). In 1917, the federal government invested in secondary vocational education by creating the Smith-Hughes National Vocational Education Act (Brief History of CTE Timeline, n.d.). The Smith-Hughes Act provided states with funding for secondary vocational education for agriculture, homemaking, and trade and industrial education to prepare students for careers instead of bachelor’s degrees (Brief History of CTE Timeline, n.d.). While the Smith-Hughes Act provided funding for vocational education, it did not successfully deliver an academic foundation for students interested in the trades; vocational education was more about providing education for specific skills for specific jobs (Brief History of CTE Timeline, n.d.). CTE programs were often seen as “dumping grounds” for students from low-income families (Butrymowicz, 2020). Historically, CTE programs were comprised of students who did not perform well in school or did not have the financial means to attend college, in particular, Black students, women, and students with disabilities were often targeted for CTE programs (Stanford, 2023). It was believed by "many educational scholars that an underlying function of vocational education [was] to segregate poor and minority students into occupational training programs in order to preserve the academic curriculum for middle- and upper-class students" (Hanford, 2014, para. 19). However, by the late 1970s, with the rapid change in technology and globalization, there was a shift in the demand for students to be multi-skilled. In the 1980s, vocational education transformed into what is known as CTE (Gilchrist, 2020). The federal 44 government amended the Vocational Educate Act into the Carl D. Perkins Act in 1984. The Act was "established to improve career-technical education programs, integrate academic and career- technical instruction, serve special populations, and meet gender equity needs" (Perkins - Career Technical Education, 2018, para. 1). The Perkins Act of 1984 aimed to boost funding for CTE in secondary and post- secondary schools. It did this by focusing on the need for high-skilled, high-paying, and in- demand jobs that would lead to stable employment after training (Perkins Career and Technical Education, n.d.). Since the federal government's inception of the Carl D. Perkins Act, the Act has been amended four times to strengthen CTE programs' funding and academic accountability (Carl Perkins Career and Technical Education Act, n.d.). The Perkins V Act provides $1.2 billion in federal support for CTE programs in all 50 states. Over the last 40 years, the changes made to the Perkins Act have aligned the accountability of educational institutions and partners when it comes to preparing students for the workforce. Vocational education originated to educate students in courses applicable to the time, such as farming, home economics, and carpentry. Traditional vocational education has stayed in secondary schools but evolved to meet the current job market demands, and high school graduation, higher education, and even some credentials needed for 21st-century jobs are possible through CTE programs (Gilchrist, 2020; Weingarten, 2015). Many jobs require some form of post-secondary training, whether it be credentials, certificates, licenses, or degrees. CTE programs can assist with meeting that requirement because no matter if a student goes straight into the workforce after high school or college, they should leave high school with academic knowledge and skills needed to succeed (Gilchrist, 2020). In addition to preparing students for post-secondary credentials, CTE programs provide a much different pathway and help foster 45 work readiness skills valued by employers through apprenticeships. However, since the 1980s, the United States has seen a decline in CTE programs. Some of the declines are due to course requirement changes for high school students and a decline in federal funding. The decline can be contr