Kinesiology
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Item Open Access The Impact of Short-Term Mega Sporting Event Experiences on Student Learning(Sport Management Education Journal, 2024) Buenano, Andrea L.; Warner, Stacy; Moore, E. Whitney G.Short-term mega sporting events provide an opportunity for students to not only gain a memorable career experience but also enhance student skills and learning. However, very few (if any) researchers have explored students’ confidence related to key skills before and after such an event. Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess the effect of experiential learning at the National Football League’s 2023 Super Bowl LVII mega event on students’ learning outcomes. Students (N = 103) responded to an online survey distributed to assess their self-confidence across 18 learning-outcome skills covering problem solving, communication, sport-industry knowledge, and professional development. Each dependent-sample t test done to examine the students’ self-confidence with the individual learning outcome skills was significant (p < .001) and had meaningfully increased (Cohen’s d range: 0.47–0.97) from pre- to postevent. The results suggest that students can experience a notable increase in self-confidence when volunteering at a short-term mega sporting event. From a practical standpoint, the results provide sport management educators with strong evidence of the meaningful student learning related to problem solving, communication, sport-industry knowledge, and professional development that can occur with a single short-term mega-event experience.Item Embargo The Influence of Prenatal Exercise Mode on Maternal Cortisol Levels during Pregnancy(East Carolina University, July 2024) Smith, Savannah VictoriaBackground: Cortisol is essential for regulating metabolism, immune function, and stress response. During pregnancy, cortisol levels naturally rise to support fetal growth and development. However, elevated maternal cortisol levels are linked to adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as preeclampsia and preterm birth. While exercise is known to normalize cortisol levels in non-pregnant women, its impact during pregnancy remains unexplored. This study aims to examine the influence of different modes of exercise during pregnancy on maternal cortisol levels. Methods: This study consisted of women with singleton pregnancies, who were randomly assigned to one of four groups: aerobic (AE), resistance (RE), combination exercise (CE), or an attention control group (CON). Blood samples were collected at 16- and 36-weeks gestation to measure cortisol levels. Participant exercise sessions were supervised and tracked. Results: In all evaluated exercise types (AE, RE, and CE) the participants had normal levels of cortisol, normal birth outcomes, with no adverse pregnancy outcomes, and thus were deemed safe for pregnant women. The study observed different change patterns in cortisol levels from early to late pregnancy among exercising groups. At 16 weeks, all the maternal cortisol levels had a small effect size, which suggested the group values were similar. At 36 weeks, the AE and CE groups had a small effect size, which showed no difference between those values; but in the RE group, there was a large effect size, which showed a difference. The change scores of the maternal blood cortisol levels showed CON, RE, and CE groups increased from early to late pregnancy, however AE decreased from early to late pregnancy. Discussion: This study enhances the understanding of how exercise during pregnancy affects cortisol levels. While the RE group compared to the CON group showed a moderately strong increase at 36 weeks, this can be due to the large effect size. It provides insights into safe and beneficial exercise regimens, aiming to inform healthcare professionals and expecting mothers about the role of exercise in managing cortisol levels and promoting healthier pregnancy outcomes.Item Embargo The Effect of Maternal Exercise Mode on One-month Infant Motor Skills(East Carolina University, August 2024) Lilley, AshtonABSTRACT Purpose: To determine if the mode of exercise influences 1-month infants neuromotor skills. Methods: One hundred and seventy-two healthy, pregnant women between 18 and 40 years were randomly assigned to aerobic, resistance, a combination of aerobic and resistance exercise intervention or no exercise (control) group. Women in the exercise groups performed 50 min of moderate-intensity, supervised exercise, three times per week; those in control group maintained usual activity. Neuromotor skills were measured at 1 month of age using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 2nd Edition (PDMS-2). Unpaired t-tests were used to compare infants’ PDMS-2 subtest percentiles, Gross Motor Quotients, and Gross Motor Quotient percentile between groups. Results: Infants of women with a pre-pregnancy BMI less than twenty-five in the aerobic and combination groups had higher PDMS-2 scores on 3 of the 4 variables analyzed relative to infants of the resistance group and nonexercisers. Infants of women with a pre-pregnancy BMI greater than twenty-five in the resistance group had higher PDMS-2 scores on 3 of the 4 variables analyzed relative to infants of the aerobic, combination, and nonexercising groups. Conclusion: Women who exercise during pregnancy may positively influence the neuromotor development for their infants. Earlier neuromotor development is correlated with higher activity rates in children. These findings could suggest that maternal exercise during pregnancy may reduce the risk of childhood obesity since physical activity is a modifiable risk factor for obesity. Key Words: CHILDHOOD OBESITY, MOTOR SKILLS, EXERCISE, PREGNANTItem Open Access The Relationship Between Smartphone Use, Social Support, and Mental Health in Collegiate Student-Athletes(East Carolina University, July 2024) Hohenstreiter, Trent AllanSmartphones have become increasingly prevalent in today’s society. Additionally, there has been a rise in mental health problems, particularly among collegiate student-athletes, where 21-33% report depressive symptoms and 28-40% report anxiety symptoms (Cox et al., 2017; Davoren & Hwang, 2014; Glascock & Poliakova, n.d.; H. Li et al., 2017). Previous research has linked elevated smartphone use to the presence of these mental health issues (Barry et al., 2022; Dobrean & Pasarelu, 2016), yet little is known about potential mediators in this relationship. Perceived social support emerges as a potential mediator, as collegiate student-athletes often rely on informal support during mental health challenges (Habeeb et al., 2022). Moreover, athletes who report having more social support from informal sources (i.e., teammates and friends) also report fewer depression and anxiety symptoms (Hagiwara et al., 2021). However, smartphones may hinder the creation of social support networks (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2013), potentially exacerbating mental health problems among collegiate student-athletes. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of the underlying factors of the mental health problems collegiate student-athletes experience by examining perceived social support as a mediator in the relationship between smartphone use and mental health problems. METHODS: A sample of 101 collegiate student-athletes (32 males and 69 females) completed a survey measuring demographic factors, smartphone use (i.e., total screen time, social media screen time, and social media use during daily activities), perceived social support (i.e., esteem, emotional, informational, and tangible), and mental health (i.e., depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and stress). RESULTS: Bivariate correlations revealed a significant association between total screen time and depressive symptoms (r = .24, p < .05), while perceived social support was inversely related to mental health problems (r = -.26, p < .01). However, there were no significant relationships observed between any variable of smartphone use and perceived social support, including its subscales (i.e., esteem, emotional, informational, and tangible support) and perceived social support did not mediate the relationship between smartphone use and mental health problems. CONCLUSION: In line with previous research, the present study suggests that collegiate student-athletes with greater smartphone use are more likely to experience depressive symptoms. Additionally, when they perceive higher levels of social support, they tend to experience fewer mental health problems, including depressive and anxiety symptoms. These findings provide valuable insights for collegiate student-athletes and their athletic support staff, highlighting the importance of educating them about the detrimental effects of smartphone use on mental health, specifically depressive symptoms, and the potential benefits of creating strong socials support circles to reduce mental health problems.Item Open Access The Influence of Lower Extremity Muscle Fatigue on Baseball Pitching Biomechanics and Performance(East Carolina University, July 2024) Praski, JeremyTHE INFLUENCE OF LOWER EXTREMITY MUSCLE FATIGUE ON BASEBALL PITCHING BIOMECHANICS AND PERFORMANCE By Jeremy Praski July 2024 Director of Thesis: Nicholas Murray, PhD Major Department: Department of Kinesiology Baseball pitching is a complex and dynamic movement involving the lower extremities, trunk, and upper extremities with the goal of throwing the 145 g baseball toward home plate with maximal velocity and accuracy. Previous research has shown a link between elbow and shoulder injury with increased pitch volume, innings pitch in a calendar year, pitch type, and number of months pitched per year (21,32). According to Spotrac, which records the injured list of MLB players and their salaries while on the injured list, 18,369 days were missed by MLB pitchers on the injury list with a throwing-related injury in 2019, which translates into $318,667,058 lost by MLB clubs (35). To date, multiple studies that have investigated the influence of fatigue on pitching kinetics, kinematics, and muscle activation in the different phases of the pitching motion (2,3,8, 24,27,28). However, none of these studies consider the performance aspects of pitching accuracy as well as pitching velocity in a simulated baseball pitching performance in which joint kinematics and muscle fatigue are also recorded. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to determine how lower extremity fatigue with increased pitch count impacts a pitcher’s joint kinematics, muscle activation levels, and pitching performance so that coaches may better be able decide when to take a pitcher out of a game. METHODS: Eleven high school and collegiate pitchers (age: 16.67 0.86 years, height: 1.78 0.08 m, weight: 74.6 14.82 kg) with 11.4 1.59 years of experience participated, two of which had to be excluded due to EMG issues. Data were collected using Noraxon Ultium Lab EMG, IMU, and Ninox 120 video camera. EMG electrodes were equipped to muscle bellies of the stride leg (BF, GAST, SEMI, VL, VM) and drive leg (GM, VL, VM) muscles, with IMU’s being equipped to the stride leg (shank and thigh) and throwing shoulder (upper arm and forearm), along with C7. After a warmup, participants were equipped with EMG and performed MVIC testing, and then equipped with IMU. IMU were then calibrated, and participants were given the opportunity to thrown warmup pitches off the mound. Participants threw 14-18 pitch innings with fastball, offspeed, and breakingball randomized like a game scenario. Participants threw a minimum of 60 pitches with a maximum of 105 pitches thrown. After each inning, participant rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recoded. RESULTS: Participants averaged 80 ± 13 total pitches and had a pitch velocity of (fastball 73.29 ± 5.98 mph, 73.76 ± 6.08 mph, offspeed 66.30 ± 5.98 mp, 66.41 ± 6.25 mph, and breakingball 62.81 ± 5.44 mph, 62.87 ± 5.63 mph) and pitch accuracy of (fastball 41.17 ± 25.48%, 37.63 ± 19.67%, offspeed 38.71 ± 30.87%, 28.77 ± 19.43%, and breakingball 30.24 ± 21.70%, 28.90 ± 20.86%) for the first and last innings respectively. Shoulder external rotation for the follow through phase of the pitching motion was significantly different from the first to last inning (p=0.03). There were no other variables that were found to be significantly different from first to last inning CONCLUSION: From the first to last inning, participant median frequency (Hz) for EMG did not significantly change, thus we do not believe that their lower extremity muscles were fatigued. However, we did notice that with no lower extremity fatigue, there were moderate Cohen’s D for effect size of the Wind Up and SFC pitching phase for throwing shoulder external rotation. This would indicate that although there was so significant difference, in the Wind Up and SFC phases there were moderate differences in the mean from first to last inning. Overall, this suggests that future studies should investigate how many pitches it takes for a pitcher to fatigue.Item Open Access THE EFFECTS OF HIP AND HAMSTRING MUSCLE STRENGTH ON DYNAMIC KNEE VALGUS AND JOINT TORQUES DURING A DOUBLE LEG DROP JUMP AND DOUBLE LEG SQUAT(East Carolina University, May 2024) Crawford, Lauren AshleyINTRODUCTION: Amongst the injuries that occur in the lower extremities, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries have been shown to be the most common lower extremity injury impacting the young adult and athletic populations on a year-to-year basis and these injuries are typically occurring via non-contact mechanisms. Insights into the mechanisms of these non-contact ACL injuries can give researchers guidance as to which direction prevention strategies should utilized rather than the implementation of broad neuromuscular and proprioceptive training protocols in use today. While knee valgus has been shown to be a risk factor for ACL, the role of proximal hip muscle strength and hamstring strength to prevent this knee valgus has not been established. PURPOSE: The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of hip and hamstring muscle strength on knee abduction angles and torques during double leg squats and drop jumps. METHODS: 20 healthy subjects were recruited and enrolled in the study. The Humac NORM dynamometer was used to assess muscle strength from the hip extensors, hip abductors, knee flexors, and knee extensors. Subjects then performed double leg squats and double leg drop jumps while motion analysis and force plate data were simultaneously collected. DATA REDUCTION: Lower extremity angles and torques were calculated from the motion and force plate data. Strength testing data (EMG, Humac Position, and Humac Torque) was collected from the Humac Norm Dynamometer. STATISTICAL APPROACH: We divided the overall group of participants into categories of strong vs. weak overall hip extensor and knee flexor strength. We then compared the knee abduction angles and joints torques between the two groups. We also explored the relationship between hip extensor and knee flexor strength on knee abduction angles and torques through a correlational analysis. RESULTS: Only the hip extensor showed significant correlations and significant differences between high vs low muscle strength with any of the knee angles or torques during the double leg drop jump task. Findings of this current investigation indicate that the strength values for only the hip extensor muscle group are indicative of a relationship between strength and knee valgus angles/torques. During the double leg drop jump task, the hip extensor strength group significantly predicted knee flexion angle at initial contact and knee flexion angle at peak vertical ground reaction force accounting for 26% and 24% of the variance respectively, leaving 74% and 76% of the variance unaccounted for by all other muscle strength variables. CONCLUSION: The current study found no statistically significant relationships between the maximum isokinetic strength between the knee extensor, knee flexor, and hip abductor muscle groups with the peak knee valgus angles and torques displayed during double leg drop jumps and squats. Findings of this current investigation indicate that the strength values for only the hip extensor muscle group are indicative of a relationship between muscle strength and knee valgus angles/torques based off a correlational analysis and stepwise regression.Item Open Access Family Members Impact on Physical Activity Levels and Enjoyment in Preschool-Aged Children(East Carolina University, July 2024) Bowers, MadisonPurpose: The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the impact mothers and older siblings have on the physical activity levels of preschoolers. Secondarily, the preschooler’s co-participation enjoyment was explored as well. Methods: A sample of 27 families (mother, sibling, and preschooler) participated in a one-time research visit. During the visit, there were two 20-minute play sessions: preschooler playing with mother and preschooler playing with older sibling independently. During the play sessions the participants were given a variety of sedentary and physical activities to choose from. Total physical activity counts during each play session were measured with an accelerometer. Enjoyment of physical activity co-participation was measured using a smiley face Likert scale. Data were analyzed using a paired t-test to compare total physical activity counts of the preschooler when playing with mother and when playing with older sibling. A paired t-test was also used to compare preschooler’s rating of enjoyment of physical activity co-participation between the mother and older sibling. Results: This study found that preschooler’s physical activity levels are similar when playing with their mothers (47,071.22 ± 19,653.04 counts per second) and older siblings (54,530.81 ± 20,791.38 counts per second) (p=.21). For enjoyment, there was no significant difference between the preschooler’s rating of enjoyment when playing with their mother or older sibling (4.76 ± .52 and 4.88 ± .86, respectively; p=.31). However, a higher percentage of preschoolers said they enjoyed playing with their mother (62%) more than their older sibling (38%) when asked. Discussion: The findings of this study show that both mothers and older siblings have a positive impact on preschoolers’ physical activity. This study further expands on the existing literature suggesting that families need to continue to be investigated as a determinate of physical activity for preschoolers. The novel findings on enjoyment of co-participation of physical activity contribute to the small amount of existing literature suggesting that enjoyment of co-participation needs to be further explored as a determinate of preschooler physical activity.Item Open Access PARENT AND COACH MOTIVATIONAL CLIMATE PROFILES AND ADOLESCENT ATHLETE GOAL ORIENTATION, ENJOYMENT, AND STRESS(East Carolina University, July 2024) Fuller, Stephanie Lynn KonopaskeQuality sport experiences can facilitate positive youth development and lead to increased sport retention. Social agents, including parents and coaches, play an important role in the quality of sport experiences through the motivational climates they create. Although both parents and coaches play independent roles, the motivational climates of social agents need to be considered collectively as athletes may perceive complementary or contradictory climates from parents and coaches. Social agents who establish mastery climates focus on self-referenced standards and define success in terms of improving ability. They emphasize the importance of effort, improvement, and skill mastery. Conversely, social agents who establish performance climates focus on norm-referenced standards and social comparison processes to define success in terms of doing better than others. They emphasize the importance of winning and competitive outcomes. Athlete perceptions of mastery climates have been associated with adaptive outcomes such as self-esteem and enjoyment, while perceptions of performance climates have been associated with more neutral to maladaptive outcomes such as immoral behavior and stress. Athlete perceptions of motivational climate have been linked to youth and adolescent athlete goal orientations (i.e., mastery or performance), enjoyment, and stress. However, the way in which these motivational climates simultaneously interact to affect young athletes is unknown. Therefore, the first purpose of this study is to identify profiles reflecting various combinations of parent and coach motivational climates using latent profile analysis. The second purpose is to examine whether profile differences exist in adolescent athlete goal orientations, stress, and enjoyment. Following IRB and athletic director/club director approval, 347 middle school-aged athletes completed surveys inquiring about perceived parent and coach motivational climate, goal orientations, stress, enjoyment, and parent involvement. Overall, athletes perceived moderate to high mastery climates and moderate to low performance climates, as well as complementary climates from parents and coaches. Athletes reported high task orientations, moderate ego orientations, moderate stress, high enjoyment, and high parent involvement. Latent profile analysis identified 5 profiles based on mastery and performance climates initiated by parents and coaches. Further analysis indicated that team type (i.e., school or club) predicted profile membership. Athletes who perceived a mastery climate reported higher mastery orientations and greater enjoyment, as well as higher parent involvement than athletes who perceived a performance climate. These athletes reported higher ego orientations, greater stress, and lower parent involvement. Athletes who perceived that their team was not achievement driven reported moderate mastery and performance climates from both parents and coaches, as well as moderate task/go orientation and stress, with lower enjoyment than other athletes. Finally, athletes who reported high mastery and performance climates from both parents and coaches reported high and ego orientations. These athletes found their sport experiences to be enjoyable, but also stressful. This research fills a void in the literature by examining the interplay of simultaneous motivational climates and achievement goal orientations. In addition, the results of this study provide evidence that adolescent sport organizations should emphasize communication and training for coaches and parents alike. In this way, they can facilitate positive sport experiences that are enjoyable and minimize stress, which ultimately may lead to positive youth development and sport retention.Item Open Access RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MUSCLE COACTIVATION, AROUSAL, AND STABILITY METRICS DURING PERTURBED GAIT(East Carolina University, July 2024) Martin, ColinFalls are a health risk to people of all ages. One mechanism that may increase the chances of a fall is a feed-forward increased co-contraction, or stiffening strategy. Another mechanism that influences fall risk is perceived levels of arousal. High arousal can negatively affect rate of force development by increasing muscle co-contraction. We studied the potential relationship between arousal, co-contraction, and stability metrics to get a better understanding of the mechanism behind falls. This study found that there was a significant increase in co-contraction and margins of stability from the preperturbation to the perturbation step. However, there were weak to no correlations between arousal and either co-contraction or margins of stability. Therefore, perceived arousal doesn’t seem to be a strong predictor of co-contraction or fall risk.Item Embargo The Effect of Exercise Mode During Pregnancy on Maternal, Placental, and Cord Inflammatory Markers(East Carolina University, July 2024) Wisseman, Bree LynnABSTRACT Excessive inflammation during pregnancy is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Specifically, increased pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and c-reactive protein (CRP) have been associated with gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, and preterm birth. Similarly, pathologies of the maternal-fetal interface, such as recurrent spontaneous abortion, are associated with high pro-inflammatory biomarkers. This also increases fetal exposure to high inflammation in utero, contributing to the increased risk of cardiometabolic and mental conditions later in life. In non-gravid adults, exercise is an effective method for reducing pro-inflammatory and increasing anti-inflammatory biomarkers, differing with exercise mode. Currently, no research has directly compared the effect of exercise modes during pregnancy on maternal, placental, and fetal inflammatory biomarkers. The purpose of this dissertation was to determine the effect of maternal aerobic, resistance, or combination (aerobic + resistance) exercise during pregnancy on maternal, placental, and cord inflammation. Samples from healthy pregnant women with singleton pregnancies that participated in a randomized control trial exercise intervention were obtained. The exercise intervention consisted of 150-minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic, resistance, or combination exercise per week from <16-wks gestation until delivery. First, we investigated the effect of exercise mode on inflammation in maternal plasma at enrollment (<16-wks) and 36-wks gestation. Second, we examined the concentration of inflammatory biomarkers in placental tissue. Third, cord blood was analyzed for inflammatory biomarkers. All studies utilized Luminex xMAP technology to quantify biomarker concentration. The second and third studies also identified protein and pathway differences with exercise using a label-free proteomics. Maternal, placental, and cord blood inflammatory biomarkers were similar between groups. However, these data revealed that other exercise metrics predicted inflammatory biomarker concentration. Specifically, increased weekly exercise duration predicted lower IL-6 and IL-8 and increased weekly exercise frequency predicted higher TNF-α in late pregnancy maternal plasma. Increased weekly exercise intensity predicted lower placental fibrinogen. Lastly, total exercise volume, exercise mode, and pre-pregnancy BMI predicted cord blood IL-6 and exercise mode and pre-pregnancy BMI predicted cord blood cortisol. Label-free proteomics revealed significantly different proteome landscapes in aerobic, resistance, and combination exercisers placental tissue and cord blood compared to controls. We identified multiple downregulated proteins in placentas of exercisers that related to inflammation and immunity. Similarly, there was a downregulation in cord blood pathways that related to innate and adaptive immunity, possibly indicating reduced downstream inflammatory biomarkers. Altogether the studies within this dissertation did not support our central hypothesis that exercise mode would differentially alter inflammatory biomarkers during pregnancy. However, our studies highlight the importance of monitoring all exercise metrics (e.g., frequency, intensity, time, type), as each related to changes in maternal, placental, and fetal inflammation. We were also able to identify other inflammatory proteins and pathways in placental tissue and cord blood, providing targets for future projects. Collectively, the studies within this dissertation support the safety of exercise during pregnancy, further emphasizing the possible benefits, regardless of exercise mode. The projects in this dissertation extend the knowledge on how antenatal exercise impacts inflammation during pregnancy, thus impacting maternal and infant health.Item Embargo Effect of Metformin Treatment in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus on Infant Mesenchymal Stem Cell Metabolism(East Carolina University, July 2024) Biagioni, Ericka M.Offspring born to women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) experience long- and short-term health consequences that may be partially mitigated through effective and timely treatment of maternal hyperglycemia. Metformin is an effective anti-diabetic agent that is increasingly prescribed to pregnant women for the treatment of GDM. However, metformin readily crosses the placenta into fetal circulation and concerns regarding the potential impact on fetal development have not been adequately addressed. While investigations conducted in animal models have produced controversial findings, randomized controlled trials in humans have reported altered postnatal growth during infancy and childhood among offspring exposed to metformin in utero. Furthermore, the underlying causal mechanisms by which metformin exerts lasting effects on offspring remain unclear. Nevertheless, the use of human umbilical cord derived mesenchymal stem cells (MCSs) has recently gained recognition as a robust model for studying infant cellular outcomes, and current evidence demonstrates that outcome measures from infant MSCs are tightly correlated with longitudinal measures of infant clinical outcomes, such as adiposity measured from birth to 4-6 years of life; thus, infant MSCs present a unique opportunity to study infant cellular outcomes. To investigate the impact of in utero metformin on infant MSC energy metabolism, we collected infant MSCs from exclusively diet controlled (A1DM-MSCs) or metformin treated (Met-MSCs) GDM pregnancies. In aim one of this dissertation, we investigated the impact of in utero metformin exposure on infant MSC substrate oxidation and insulin action under basal conditions and in response to excess fatty acids using radiolabeled glucose, oleate, and palmitate tracers. Measurements of MSC lipid accumulation and mitochondrial content markers were also conducted, in addition to metformin concentrations in cord blood plasma samples. Met-MSCs displayed lower rates of oleate oxidation under basal conditions, compared to A1DM-MSC, despite no differences in mitochondrial content or lipid availability. Additionally, differences in oleate oxidation were no longer apparent under conditions of excess fatty acids. We also reported a large variability among cord blood plasma metformin concentrations, which did not associate with measures of maternal metformin dosing. In aim two of this dissertation, we examined the impact of in utero metformin exposure on infant MSC mitochondrial capacity and control of respiratory flux across physiologic energy demands in the presence of substrates specific to respiratory complex I (CI), CII, and fatty acid oxidation using cellular respirometry. We also investigated the relationship between metformin exposure measures and MSC mitochondrial outcomes. Met-MSCs exhibited lower mitochondrial maximal capacity and diminished CII-linked respiration and respiratory conductance compared to A1DM-MSCs. We also reported relationships between length of in utero metformin exposure and mitochondrial protein expression of CII and citrate synthase. Collectively, these data demonstrate that infant MSCs adaptively respond to in utero metformin exposure, as evident by the lasting effects observed in infant MSCs in the absence of metformin. These findings are clinically relevant and will help inform clinicians of the potential effects of prescribing metformin to pregnant women diagnosed with GDM on the developing fetus, thus increasing the level of care provided.Item Embargo Whole-Body Metabolic Flexibility is Discordant with Skeletal Muscle Metabolism(East Carolina University, July 2024) Krassovskaia, PolinaMetabolic disease continues to be a worldwide problem that affects all ages, sexes, and socioeconomic statuses. The development of metabolic disease is multifactorial with both genetic and environmental components. Because of this, interest has grown in the early identification of individuals susceptible towards the development of metabolic disease. Metabolic flexibility has gained standing as a metric of metabolic health and can be defined as the ability to appropriately adapt substrate utilization in response to substrate availability. Skeletal muscle (SkM) is a regulator of metabolic flexibility as it is the primary tissue responsible for post-prandial substrate handling, and metabolic inflexibility can be seen in the SkM of individuals with metabolic disease. As Western style diets are proportionally heavy in fats and implicated in the development of obesity, metabolic flexibility with lipids is of particular interest. High-fat diets (HFDs) are a common and successful approach for distinguishing differences in metabolic flexibility with lipids across populations. Some evidence exists for metabolic inflexibility in healthy, lean individuals, which suggests metabolic flexibility may be an innate component of SkM. Studies of individuals with overweight allow insight into the intrinsic characteristics of SkM that promote the development of metabolic disease, yet this population remains largely understudied. The current study aimed to assess metabolic flexibility in a population of healthy individuals with overweight with a 3-day HFD. In chapter 2, we show that the participants studied are sedentary, have overweight, and do not display evidence of dysglycemia or dyslipidemia. Participants did not differ in dietary habits before or during the diet. Metabolic flexibility was calculated as the change in SkM homogenate palmitate oxidation with the high-fat diet. Metabolically flexible individuals show almost a two-fold increase in palmitate oxidation with the diet, while inflexible individuals decrease oxidation by about one-third of pre-diet rates, and this occurs without any changes to pyruvate oxidation. Metabolic flexibility was not associated with skeletal muscle fiber type. The change in the respiratory quotient during a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp is a classical approach towards assessing metabolic flexibility; we found that this was not associated with metabolic flexibility when measured as the change in palmitate oxidation in homogenates with the diet. Additionally, flexible and inflexible participants did not differ in mitochondrial function. Taken together, this indicates that metabolic flexibility is an innate component of SkM and can be seen prior to any clinical evidence of metabolic disruption, and metabolic flexibility is not associated with either muscle fiber type or mitochondrial function. In chapter 3, we utilized primary human skeletal muscle stem cells (HSkMCs) of the same cohort of participants studied in chapter 2. We show that a 3-day HFD does not result in changes in HSkMC metabolism measured by substrate oxidation, glycogen synthesis, and protein content of mitochondrial markers and PGC1a. Cells were additionally incubated with a lipid cocktail for 24 hours, which has been shown to help distinguish differences in metabolic flexibility in HSkMCs. Even with lipid treatment, no effect of the HFD was seen. Although participants were stratified based off the change in palmitate oxidation seen in SkM homogenates, a main finding was that HSkMCs of flexible individuals show enhanced glucose metabolism seen as higher glucose oxidation efficiency. Interestingly, measures of HSkMC lipid metabolism did not associate with similar measures of homogenate lipid metabolism. Together, these data provide novel findings demonstrating that metabolic inflexibility is present in SkM prior to detection at the whole-body level and occurs without any clinical markers of metabolic disturbance.Item Embargo The effect of Ventilatory TThreshold in Endurance and Resistance Training(East Carolina University, May 2024) Shackelford, HunterThis thesis aims to compare and contrast the short stories of “Roberto” and “Tierra” from the collection Diecinueve garras y un pájaro oscuro by Agustina Bazterrica. Both of these stories portray the narratives of sexually abused young girls. Through analyzing these works, this thesis seeks to discover how the portrayals of the victims represents the culture related to sexual abuse both in Argentina and around the world. A close literary reading is used to explore the symbolism in the stories. The psychological aspects of these stories are also explored. Through the combination of these critical lenses, I propose potential interpretations for these open-ended stories.Item Open Access The Engaged Learner: Undergraduate Research and the Super Bowl(2024-01) Warner, Stacy; Buenano, Andrea L.Laudable attempts within the sport management discipline, such as the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) Teaching & Learning Fair and the Sport Management Education Journal (SMEJ), have been made to enhance and showcase how research and teaching ideally should be intertwined. Further, COSMA (Commission on Sport Management Accreditation, 2022) lists research/undergraduate research as an “Innovation” under its Common Professional Component (undergraduate only) within their accreditation manual. This is not surprising considering many agree that the main difference between undergraduate and graduate academic models within sport management “are the degree of research involvement” (Kelley et al., 1994, p. 95). Undergraduate research continues to be noted as a “high-impact practice” by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU), while student involvement in research has been shown to positively impact student retention and academic performance (Jones et al., 2010; Lanning & Brown, 2019), in addition to fostering campus engagement (Kuh, 2012).Item Open Access Girls With Game: Sport and Community Development Strategies(2023-06-19) Buenaño, Andrea L.; Warner, StacyThis case focuses on the Little League Softball World Series and the potential interest and growth of youth softball. The case outlines current trends and highlights potential opportunities to grow the game after a 2020 decision to move the Little League Softball World Series from Portland, Oregon, where it had been hosted for over 25 years, to Greenville, North Carolina. This case challenges students to (a) examine how sports organizations must be intentional about growing a sport, (b) develop new solutions to involve the local community, and (c) find new and effective ways to promote a girls’ sport (and an international event at the local level) in a manner that advances women in sport. It is intended for use in strategic management, event management, and/or contemporary sport issue courses. The case provides instructors with the opportunity to highlight the importance of advancing diversity in youth sport, with an emphasis on community impact, and effective strategies to promote women in sport.Item Open Access Relational Efficacy & Social Support in Athletics(East Carolina University, 2023-05-05) Russell, Ronald, IIISocial support is critical to athletes' mental health. Previous research has demonstrated that social support reduces burnout in collegiate student athletes while increasing overall well- being (Defreese & Smith, 2014). Despite the well-documented importance of social support in athletes' life, particularly from teammates, little research has been undertaken to investigate how a person's belief in a teammate's athletic potential is connected to the amount of social support provided to members of an individual's training group. In terms of 'belief', Lent and Lopez (2002) proposed the tripartite model of efficacy beliefs. This model contained three different types of efficacy beliefs: self-efficacy (i.e., an individual's belief in themselves), other-efficacy (an individual's belief in another person), and relation inferred self-efficacy (an individual's perception about how another person views them). PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of relational effects among teammates. Essentially, the researchers sought to examine how other- efficacy relates to social support provided by teammates, how that received social support relates to relation inferred self-efficacy, and how relation inferred self- efficacy relates to the self-efficacy of the athlete. METHODS: Participants included male (n = 44, 36.4%) and female (n = 67, 55.4%) athletes with an age range of 17-23 (MAge = 20.28 years, SDAge = 1.51). Athletes were required to complete a survey containing social support (i.e., perceived and provided tangible, esteem, emotional, and informational support), (i.e., self- efficacy, other-efficacy, and relation inferred self-efficacy), and demographic measures. RESULTS: Multiple linear regressions were used to test the relationships between each variable. Other-efficacy was found to significantly predict provided tangible ([beta] = .31, p = [less-than].001), emotional ([beta] = .26, p = .004), and esteem social support ([beta] = .24, p = .008). Provided informational social support was not significantly predicted by other-efficacy ([beta] = .12, p = .162). The four types of received social support did not significantly predict relation inferred self- efficacy (RISE; [beta] = -.06 - .180, p = .138 - .596). Finally, relation inferred self-efficacy predicted self-efficacy ([beta] = .66, p = [less-than].001). CONCLUSION: According to the present study, those who are confident in their teammate's talents are more likely to supply them with social support. Furthermore, a teammate's confidence in an individual predicts the amount of emotional comfort, self-confidence building gestures, and tangible experiences they provide.Item Embargo Lactate as a Predictor for Factors of Metabolic Syndrome in Males and Females with Overweight(East Carolina University, 2023-05-09) Sulpar, RebeccaBackground: The prevalence of obesity has dramatically increased by more than 10% over the last twenty years. Risks of obesity include the development of metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) with concomitant development of conditions such as heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers. MetSyn is classified as having three of the following: a large waist circumference, hypertension, high blood sugar, high triglycerides, and dyslipidemia. Poor skeletal muscle metabolism is linked to obesity due to a low rate of fatty acid oxidation. Blood lactate is an indicator of oxidative capacity at rest and there is an inverse relationship between them. Elevated fasting plasma lactate levels in the body are present in obesity. Thus, lactate may be a precursor for obesity and metabolic diseases such as MetSyn in both males and females. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between blood lactate levels and its indices in men and women with overweight that has the potential to be used as a precursor for the development of MetSyn. Methods: Overweight subjects (n=29) with a body mass index (BMI) of 25.0-29.9 kg/m2 were screened for plasma lactate concentration. The subjects then returned for two additional visits. The first visit consisted of a DEXA scan, a 3-D body scan, and a maximal exercise test on a cycle ergometer. The participants returned for a Resting Metabolic Rate measurement. Results: Average fasting plasma lactate was 1.05 [plus-minus] 0.11 mmol/L. Plasma lactate was positively associated with factors of MetSyn such as total cholesterol (r=0.611, p=0.0004), triglyceride levels (r=0.49, p=0.007), LDL levels (r=0.582, p=0.0009), HOMA-IR values (r=0.626, p=0.0003), insulin levels (r=0.595, p=0.0007), android/gynoid ratio (r=0.396, p=0.034), and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) mass (r=0.672, p[less-than]0.0001). Other factors of MetSyn such as BMI, HDL, blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), and waist-to-hip ratio were not statistically significant. Conclusion: The results from the current study show that plasma lactate levels have positive relationships with factors of MetSyn. Analyzing plasma lactate values may help clinicians and future researchers predict the development of metabolic diseases such as metabolic syndrome.Item Embargo The Effects of Exercise and Race on Placental C-Reactive Protein and Maternal Metabolism(East Carolina University, 2023-05-21) Tadlock, SydneyBackground- Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in women. C-reactive protein (CRP) is an inflammatory metabolite that is indicative of CVD. Pregnant women tend to have higher levels of CRP. Additionally, levels of CRP are reported to be higher in BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) individuals; however, this has not been assessed during pregnancy. Although inflammation is associated with high lipids, glucose, lactate, and excess body fat, little research has investigated the interaction between CRP and lipids, glucose, lactate, and body composition during pregnancy. Conversely, exercise has been shown to lower CRP, lipids, glucose, and body composition in nongravid individuals. To date, the effects of exercise on CRP levels in placental tissue has not been investigated. However, the influence of exercise during pregnancy on CRP, lipids, glucose, lactate, and maternal body composition is unknown. Purpose- The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of exercise on placental CRP, blood lipids, glucose, lactate, and body composition with the intent to answer the question whether exercise lowers placental CRP and other maternal metabolic measures. Additionally, this study will determine the difference of placental CRP and other maternal metabolic measures between Caucasian women as well as women who identify as BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) community. Methods- Pregnant women were enrolled between 13-16 weeks' gestation. Subjects (n=19) completed body composition measurements and venipuncture at enrollment and 36 weeks' gestation. Participants were randomized to one of four groups: Aerobic, Resistance, Combination (aerobic + resistance), Stretching. After randomization, women were exercised three times a week from enrollment to delivery. Once participants delivered, placental samples were collected and stored in -80[degrees] C. Samples were then homogenized, and analysis was completed via the Millipore tissue sample protocol. ANOVA was completed for assessments between exercise groups and t-tests for assessments between BIPOC and Caucasian women. Results- There are no differences between exercise and placental CRP between exercise groups. However, when comparing the difference between racial groups, CRP levels trended towards significance (p=0.14). Conclusion- These data suggest that exercise does not increase placental inflammatory or maternal metabolic markers, regardless of race. Further investigation with larger sample sizes is required.Item Embargo The Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Insulin Sensitivity in Primary Human Skeletal Muscle Cells(East Carolina University, 2023-05-18) Jones, ChristianInsulin is a hormone that plays a role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis, through the regulation of blood glucose levels. Insulin sensitivity is defined as how well the body responds to insulin, and when this is impaired, it results in insulin resistance. Insulin resistance refers to a decrease in insulin-mediated glucose disposal in insulin-sensitive tissues. Impaired insulin action can result in insulin resistance, which can lead to illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. PURPOSE: The purpose is to explore various training modalities and their effects on insulin action, with the intent to answer the question which mode of training, aerobics or resistance has a greater impact on insulin sensitivity. I speculate that the resistance exercisers will show greater improvements in insulin action, compared to the endurance and control groups. METHODS: To examine insulin action, glycogen synthesis was performed on primary human skeletal muscle cells that were derived from 3 groups: high active endurance, highly active resistance, and sedentary control. The samples underwent proliferation and were grown in a cell culture media incubator. After reaching 70-80% confluency, myogenic cells were isolated and differentiated. After cells went through five days of differentiation, they were ready for glycogen synthesis, which was determined using liquid scintillation counting. RESULTS: There were 11 participants in the highly active endurance group, 10 participants in the highly active resistance group, and 4 participants in the sedentary control group. The sedentary group had a greater BMI than the endurance and resistance groups. There was an increase in glycogen synthesis in all groups when stimulated with insulin (p [less-than] 0.0001). There was a significant difference between the highly active resistance and sedentary control groups, when fold change was calculated (p = 0.0060), with the change in the sedentary controls being greater than highly active resistance group. There were no significant correlations between the results and the group characteristics (age, BMI, and oxygen consumption). CONCLUSION: The present study showed that there was an increase in glycogen synthesis in all subjects, regardless of group, when comparing basal to insulin stimulated values. The results of this current study line up with results found in several others that have looked at aerobic trained individuals, however; they have failed to investigate resistance training. It is evident that resistance training has the same effects as aerobic training, but the topic needs to be further explored to confirm this finding.Item Open Access ASSOCIATION OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS, EFFICACY, AND PERFORMANCE IN ROTC CADETS(East Carolina University, 2023-05-04) Baker, AjalaTransformational leadership is when leaders inspire, motivate, influence, and stimulate followers to build a connection and common belief towards goals. Military leaders that engage in transformational leadership encompass behaviors that can build their followers' confidence to reach their full performance potential individually and collectively. Confidence is mentioned as one of the most needed psychological skills to succeed in cadets' field training experiences. In addition to exhibiting transformational behaviors, effective military leaders instill confidence in their followers. Confidence comes from several sources including evaluations of oneself (i.e., self-efficacy; SE), leaders (i.e., other efficacy; OE), and the whole group (i.e., collective efficacy; CE). In addition to confidence, leadership styles can impact performance including military soldier's abilities to meet challenges and perform tactical tasks. Unfortunately, very little evidence exists to support if ROTC cadets exhibit transformational behaviors and how these behaviors relate to their confidence and performance. The study's purposes were to (1) examine the relationship between transformational leadership behaviors and performance in ROTC cadets; and (2) examine whether efficacy mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and performance in ROTC cadets. We hypothesize (1) transformational leadership behaviors will have a direct relationship with performance; and (2) self-efficacy, other-efficacy, and collective efficacy will mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and performance. Within the Army ROTC program, 67 participants completed all the assessments which included transformational leadership, efficacy, and performance measurements. Historical data of the cadet's Army Combat Fitness Test that includes the maximum deadlift, standing power throw, hand release push-up-arm extension, sprint-drag-carry, plank, and two-mile run was used to measure performance. To test hypotheses, direct and indirect effects among transformational leadership, efficacy, and performance were analyzed alongside means, standard deviations, and correlation. Due to the nonsignificant direct correlations, the results did not support hypothesis 1. Using collective efficacy as the mediator, Hypothesis 2 not supported based on the strong negative indirect connections between the top three transformative leadership behaviors and Maximum Deadlift as the performance outcome. In conclusion, leadership behaviors might eventually affect a soldier's or cadet's performance and confidence in a mentally and physically.